Category: Cellular Processes

Protein Synthesis Puzzle

 

Protein Synthesis
Across 2. a series of three mRNA nucleotides that codes for an amino acid 3. coded for by DNA and made of amino acids 7. process of assembling amino acids into polypeptides in the ribosomes 9. RNA that copies DNA in the nucleus 10. use to translate mRNA transcripts into proteins 11. UGA, UAA, and UAG codons 12. RNA that carries amino acids to be linked together to make proteins 15. site of transcription Down 1. both DNA and RNA are these types of compounds 2. where ribosomes are found 4. series of three bases on tRNA that code for an amino acid 5. base on RNA that replaces thymine 6. holes in the nuclear membrane where mRNA leaves to move to the ribosome 8. methionine codon (AUG) 13. RNA that makes up ribosomes along with proteins 14. site of protein synthesis

 

Preap Cellular Respiration Study Guide

 

Cellular Respiration Review  

 

1. Most eukaryotic cells produce only about ___________  ATP Molecules per Glucose Molecule.

2. What is the process by which glucose is converted to pyruvic acid? ________________________________________

3. At the beginning of aerobic respiration, pyruvic acid bonds to a molecule called ______________________________________ to form Acetyl CoA.

4. The breakdown of pyruvic acid in the presence of oxygen is called ______________________________  _______________________.

5. With every completion of the Krebs Cycle, how many ATP Molecules are made? ________________

6. What is the waste product of the Krebs Cycle? _____________________________________________.

7. The conversion of pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and ethanol is called ___________________________________   _____________________________________________.

8. The release of energy from food molecules in the absence of oxygen is ______________________________________     _________________________________________________________.

9. What is the byproduct of the electron transport Chain?_______________________________________________.

10. How efficient is Anaerobic Respiration? __________%  Aerobic Respiration? ____________%

11. What is the first pathway of cellular respiration called? ________________________________________________

12.What is the location of Glycolysis? _______________________________________________________

13. What is the scientific unit of Energy? ________________________________________________

14. What do you call cellular respiration in the presence of oxygen? _______________________________________  _________________________________________________________.

15. Yeast produces ______________________________ and _______________________________ in the process known as ____________________________________  ___________________________________________.

16. In cellular respiration, glycolysis proceeds the _______________________________  ___________________________.

17. In cellular respiration, more energy is transferred in the ___________________________  ________________________  _________________________________ than in any other step.

18. Glucose molecules are converted into _______________________________  _______________________ molecules in the process of glycolysis.

19. What is the location of the electron transport chain in prokaryotes? ________________  _______________________.

20. The processes of glycolysis and the anaerobic pathways is called ___________________________________.

21. What is the product of acetyl CoA and oxaloacetic acid? _________________  ___________________

22. What molecule is the electron acceptor of glycolysis? _________________________________________

23. The breakdown of organic compounds to produce ATP is known as ____________________________________  ________________________-_______________________________.

24. Glycolysis begins with glucose and produces ______________________________  _________________________.

25. An important molecule generated by both lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation is ______________________________.

26.  In the first step of aerobic respiration, pyruvic acid from glycolysis produces CO2, NADH, H+, and _________________________________  _____________________________________.

27. The electron transport chain is driven by two products of the Krebs Cycle – ______________________  and  ___________________________.

28. What happens to electrons as they are transported along the electron transport chain? _________________________________________________________________

29. The energy efficiency of aerobic respiration (including glycolysis) is approximately ______________  __________________________________________________.

30. Where in the mitochondria do the reactions of the Krebs cycle occur? _____________________________   ___________________________________________________________

31. Where in the mitochondria is the electron transport chain located? _____________________________          __________________________________________________

32. In alcoholic fermentation, ethyl alcohol is produced from _______________________________  ______________________________________.

33.  ____________________________________, and _______________________________ supply electrons and protons to the electron transport chain.

34. Cellular respiration takes place in Two Stages: _______________________________________, then ________________________________________  ________________________________.

35. Water is an end product in the ________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.

36. In cellular respiration, a two-carbon molecule combines with a four-carbon molecule to form citric acid as part of the _____________________________________________________________________________________.

37. When glycolysis occurs, a molecule of glucose is ___________________________________________.

38. The name of the process that takes place when organic compounds are broken down in the absence of oxygen is _____________________________________________ or _______________________________________.

39. Energetic electrons that provide the energy for the production of most of a cell’s ATP are carried to the electron transport chain by _______________________________ and __________________________________________.

40. _______________________________________ is a biochemical pathway of cellular respiration that is anaerobic.

41. Glucose is split into smaller molecules during the biochemical pathway called __________________________________.

42. In the absence of oxygen, instead of oxidative respiration following glycolysis, glycolysis is followed by ______________________________________________________.

43. During fermentation, either ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide or _______________________________________ is formed.

DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions below as completely and as thoroughly as possible. Answer the question in essay form (not outline form), using complete sentences. You may use diagrams to supplement your answers, but a diagram alone without appropriate discussion is inadequate.

1. How does aerobic respiration ultimately depend on photosynthesis?

2. Explain the role of oxaloacetic acid with respect to the cyclical nature of the Krebs cycle.

3. Glycolysis produces only 3.5% of the energy that would be produced if an equal quantity of glucose were completely oxidized.  What has happened to the remaining energy in the glucose?

4. Why do most cells produce fewer than 38 ATP molecules for every glucose molecule that is oxidized through aerobic respiration?

5. What happens to electrons that accumulate at the end of the electron transport chain?

6. What role does chemiosmosis play in aerobic respiration?

7. What condition must exist in a cell for the cell to engage in fermentation?

8. How is the synthesis of ATP in the electron transport chain of mitochondria similar to the synthesis of ATP in chloroplasts?

9. The fourth step of glycolysis yields four ATP molecules, but the net yield is only two ATP molecules.  Explain this discrepancy.

10. Under what conditions would cells in your body undergo lactic-acid fermentation?

11. What role does oxygen play in aerobic respiration? What molecule does oxygen become a part of as a result of aerobic respiration?

12. Where in the mitochondrion do protons accumulate, and what is the source of the protons?

Pedigree Lab

Constructing a Pedigree

Introduction

A pedigree is a special chart or family tree that uses a particular set of standardized symbols. Pedigrees are used to show the history of inherited traits through a family. In a pedigree, males are represented by squares and females by circles . An individual who exhibits the trait in question, for example, someone who suffers from hemophilia, is represented by a filled symbol or . A horizontal line between two symbols represents a mating . The offspring are connected to each other by a horizontal line above the symbols and to the parents by vertical lines. Roman numerals (I, II, III, etc.) symbolize generations. Arabic numerals (1,2,3, etc.) symbolize birth order within each generation. In this way, any individual within the pedigree can be identified by the combination of two numbers (i.e., individual II3).

Objective

Inherited traits can be traced through a family’s history by constructing a pedigree chart.

Materials

Large sheet of paper or poster board
Markers
Ruler
Protractor

Procedure
Part 1

1.      Examine Figure 1 that traces the ability to roll your tongue through three generations in a family. Remember: Blackened circles show the trait and circles are females and squares are male.

2.    Determine which parents and which offspring would be able to roll their tongue.  

FIGURE 1

 

Part 2

3.    Read the Passage 1 about the Smith family and their inherited trait of dimples.

4.    After reading the passage, construct a pedigree showing all family members in each generation that does and does NOT have dimples.

5.    Once the pedigree is constructed, write the correct genotype by each person in the family.

 

Passage 1

Grandfather and Grandmother Smith smiled a lot and showed off their dimples each time. They had a son named John, who had dimples, and daughter named Julie, who did not. Julie died at an early age, but her brother John Smith met and married Mary Jones because she had the most beautiful dimples when she smiled. They had 5 children, 2 boys and 3 girls. Only one of their sons, Tom, had dimples, but both girls, Judy and Kay, had dimpled smiles. Their sister June lacked dimples. After college, Tom met and married Jane Kennedy who also had dimples. They had 3 children, all girls, who shared their parent’s dimpled smile. Tom’s sister Kay married a lawyer named James who seldom smiled and didn’t have dimples. Their only son Matthew was like his mother when he smiled. Judy never married. Tom’s sister, June, married a doctor and had 5 children. Three of the children were boys, Jay, Fred, and Mike. Mike and Fred had dimples like dad, but Jay’s smile was like his mom’s lacking dimples. One sister, Susan, had dimples, but the other, Katherine, didn’t.

 

Questions

1.      What type of information does a pedigree contain?

2.    How do you show the presence of a trait in a pedigree?

3.    How do you denote males & females in a pedigree?

4.    From your pedigree, is the presence of dimples a dominant or recessive trait?

5.     How could examining a family pedigree be helpful to a couple wanting to have children?

 

 

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis
All Materials © Cmassengale

I. Capturing the Energy of Life

  1. All organisms require energy
  2. Some organisms (autotrophs) obtain energy directly from the sun and store it in organic compounds (glucose) during a process called photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy –>  6O2 + C6H12O6

II. Energy for Life Processes

  1. Energy is the ability to do work
  2. Work for a cell includes growth & repair, active transport across cell membranes, reproduction, synthesis of cellular products, etc.
  3. Work is the ability to change or move matter against other forces (W = F x D)
  4. Autotrophs or producers convert sunlight, CO2, and H2O into glucose (their food)
  5. Plants, algae, and blue-green bacteria, some prokaryotes, are producers or autotrophs
  6. Only 10% of the Earth’s 40 million species are autotrophs
  7. Other autotrophs use inorganic compounds instead of sunlight to make food; process known as chemosynthesis
  8. Producers make food for themselves and heterotrophs or consumers that cannot make food for themselves
  9. Heterotrophs include animals, fungi, & some bacteria, & protists

III.      Biochemical Pathways

  1. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are biochemical pathways
  2. Biochemical pathways are a series of reactions where the product of one reaction is the reactant of the next
  3. Only autotrophs are capable of photosynthesis
  4. Both autotrophs & heterotrophs perform cellular respiration to release energy to do work
  5. In photosynthesis, CO2(carbon dioxide) and H2O (water) are combined to form C6H12O6 (glucose) & O2 (oxygen)
    6CO2 + 6H2O + energy –>  6O2 + C6H12O6
  6. In cellular respiration, O2 (oxygen) is used to burn C6H12O6 (glucose) & release CO2(carbon dioxide), H2O (water), and energy 
  7. Usable energy released in cellular respiration is called adenosine triphosphate or ATP

 

IV. Light Absorption in Chloroplasts

  1. Chloroplasts in plant & algal cells absorb light energy from the sun during the light dependent reactions
  2. Photosynthetic cells may have thousands of chloroplasts
  3. Chloroplasts are double membrane organelles with the an inner membrane folded into disc-shaped sacs called thylakoids
  4. Thylakoids, containing chlorophyll and other accessory pigments, are in stacks called granum (grana, plural)
  5. Grana are connected to each other & surrounded by a gel-like material called stroma
  6. Light-capturing pigments in the grana are organized into photosystems

 V. Pigments

  1. Light travels as waves & packets called photons
  2. Wavelength of light is the distance between 2 consecutive peaks or troughs

  1. Sunlight or white light is made of different wavelengths or colors carrying different amounts of energy
  2. A prism separates white light into 7 colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, & violet) ROY G. BIV
  3. These colors are called the visible spectrum

  1. When light strikes an object, it is absorbed, transmitted, or reflected
  2. When all colors are absorbed, the object appears black
  3. When all colors are reflected, the object appears white
  4. If only one color is reflected (green), the object appears that color (e.g. Chlorophyll)
VI. Pigments in the Chloroplasts

 

 chlorophyll is found only in the chloroplasts
  1. Thylakoids contain a variety of pigments ( green red, orange, yellow…)
  2. Chlorophyll  (C55H70MgN4O6) is the most common pigment in plants & algae
  3. Chlorophyll a & chlorophyll b are the 2 most common types of chlorophyll in autotrophs
  4. Chlorophyll absorbs only red, blue, & violet light
  5. Chlorophyll b absorbs colors or light energy NOT absorbed by chlorophyll a
  6. The light energy absorbed by chlorophyll b is transferred to chlorophyll a in the light reactions

structural formula of chlorophyll

  1. Carotenoids are accessory pigments in the thylakoids & include yellow, orange, & red

 

VII. Overview of Photosynthesis        6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

  1. Photosynthesis is not a simple one step reaction but a biochemical pathway involving many steps
  2. This complex reaction can be broken down into  two reaction systems — light dependent & light independent or dark reactions
  • Light Reaction:         H2O O2 + ATP + NADPH2
    • Water is split, giving off oxygen.
    • This system depends on sunlight for activation energy.
    • Light is absorbed by chlorophyll a which “excites” the electrons in the chlorophyll molecule.
    • Electrons are passed through a series of carriers and adenosine triphosphate or ATP (energy) is produced.
    • Takes place in the thylakoids.
  • Dark Reaction:         ATP + NADPH2 + CO2 C6H12O6
    • Carbon dioxide is split, providing carbon to make sugars.
    • The ultimate product is glucose.
    • While this system depends on the products from the light reactions, it does not directly require light energy.
    • Includes the Calvin Cycle.
    • Takes place in the stroma.

VIII. Calvin Cycle

  1. Carbon atoms from CO2 are bonded or “fixed” into organic compounds during a process called carbon fixation
  2. The energy stored in ATP and NADPH during the Light Reactions is used in the Calvin cycle
  3. The Calvin cycle has 3 main steps occurring within the stroma of the Chloroplast

     STEP 1

  • CO2 diffuses into the stroma from surrounding cytosol
  • An enzyme combines a CO2 molecule with a five-carbon carbohydrate called RuBP
  • The six-carbon molecule produced then splits immediately into a pair of three-carbon molecules known as PGA

      STEP 2

  • Each PGA molecule receives a phosphate group from a molecule of ATP
  • This compound then receives a proton from NADPH and releases a phosphate group producing PGAL
  • These reactions produce ADP, NADP+, and phosphate which are used again in the Light Reactions.

   STEP 3

  • Most PGAL is converted back to RuBP to keep the Calvin cycle going
  • Some PGAL leaves the Calvin Cycle and is used to make other organic compounds including amino acids, lipids, and carbohydrates
  • PGAL serves as the starting material for the synthesis of glucose and fructose
  • Glucose and fructose make the disaccharide sucrose, which travels in solution to other parts of the plant (e.g., fruit, roots)

movements within plants

  • Glucose is also the monomer used in the synthesis of the polysaccharides starch and cellulose

  1. Each turn of the Calvin cycle fixes One CO2 molecule so it takes six turns to make one molecule of glucose

IX. Photosystems & Electron Transport Chain

  1. Only 1 in 250 chlorophyll molecules (chlorophyll a) actually converts light energy into usable energy
  2. These molecules are called reaction-center chlorophyll
  3. The other molecules (chlorophyll b, c, & d and carotenoids) absorb light energy and deliver it to the reaction-center molecule
  4. These chlorophyll molecules are known as antenna pigments
  5. A unit of several hundred antenna pigment molecules plus a reaction center is called a photosynthetic unit or photosystem
  6. There are 2 types of photosystems — Photosystem I & Photosystem II
  7. Light is absorbed by the antenna pigments of photosystems II and I
  8. The absorbed energy is transferred to the reaction center pigment, P680 in photosystem II, P700 in photosystem I
  9. P680 in Photosystem II loses an electron and becomes positively charged so it can now split water & release electrons  (2H2O   4H+   +   4e-   +  O2)
  10. Electrons from water are transferred to the cytochrome complex of Photosystem I
  11. These excited electrons activate P700 in photosystem I which helps reduce NADP+ to NADPH
  12. NADPH is used in the Calvin cycle
  13. Electrons from Photosystem II replace the electrons that leave chlorophyll molecules in Photosystem I

X. Chemiosmosis (KEM-ee-ahz-MOH-suhs)

  1. Synthesis or making of ATP (energy)
  2. Depends on the concentration gradient of protons ( H+) across the thylakoid membrane
  3. Protons (H+) are produced from the splitting of water in Photosystem II
  4. Concentration of Protons is HIGHER in the thylakoid than in the stroma
  5. Enzyme, ATP synthetase in the thylakoid membrane, makes ATP by adding a phosphate group to ADP

XI. Alternate Pathways

  1. The Calvin cycle is the most common pathway used by autotrophs called C3 Plants
  2. Plants in hot, dry climates use alternate pathways to fix carbon & then transfer it to the Calvin cycle
  3. Stomata are small openings on the underside of leaves for gas exchange (O2 & CO2)
  4. Guard cells on each side of the stoma help open & close the stomata
  5. Plants also lose H2O through stoma so they are closed during the hottest part of the day

  1. C4 plants  fix CO2 into 4-Carbon Compounds during the hottest part of the day when  their stomata are partially closed
  2. C4 plants include corn, sugar cane and crabgrass
  3. CAM plants include cactus & pineapples
  4. CAM plants open their stomata at night and close during the day so CO2 is fixed at night
  5. During the day, the CO2 is released from these compounds and enters the Calvin Cycle

XII. Factors Determining the Rate of Photosynthesis

  1. Light intensity – As light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis initially increases and then levels off to a plateau
  2. Temperature – Only the dark, not the light reactions are temperature dependent because of the enzymes they use (25 oC to 37oC)
  3. Length of day
  4. Increasing the amount of carbon dioxide available improves the photosynthesis rate
  5. Level of air pollution

 

 

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Photosynthesis Worksheet Ch6 BI

 

Photosynthesis

 

Section 6-1 Capturing Light Energy

1. All organisms require ___________________ to carry out their life functions.

2. ___________________ is the ultimate energy for all life on earth.

3. During photosynthesis, the energy from the sun is stored within _____________________

compounds, mainly the sugar _______________________.

4. What organisms can carry on photosynthesis?

5. Name several autotrophic organisms.

6. What is a biochemical pathway and give an example?

7. What gas is used by autotrophs & what gas is produced?

8. What organisms release stored energy from organic compounds through cellular respiration?

9. Draw the diagram showing energy storage & transfer between autotrophs & heterotrophs. (Figure 6.1)

10. What are the light reactions of plants and in what organelle do they occur?

11. Draw & label the parts of a chloroplast. Tell the function of each labeled part.

12. Flattened sacs in chloroplasts are known as ____________________ and are

_______________________ to each other.

13. Thylakoid sacs in chloroplasts are called _____________________________.

14. What gel-like solution surrounds the thylakoids inside the chloroplast?

15. What is the visible spectrum?

16. Name the 7 colors that make up the visible spectrum.

17. What 3 things can happen to light that strikes an object?

18. What are pigments & what is their function in plants?

19. Is red light reflected or absorbed by an object if the object appears red to your eyes?

20. Name the most important chloroplast pigment & tell the 2 most important types of this pigment.

21. Only ________________________ is directly in capturing light energy.

22. Chlorophyll b is an example of an ______________________ pigment in plants.

23.Name another accessory pigment & tell what colors it includes. When could you see these colors?

24. Chlorophyll is most abundant in the _____________________ of a plant, while accessory
pigments appear more in the _________________________ and fruits.

25. The _________________________ and ________________________ pigments are grouped
into clusters in the thylakoid membrane.

26. What is a photosystem?

27. Name the 2 types of photosystems.

28. The light reactions start when __________________ pigments absorb ______________.

29. Absorbed light is passed to a pair of ________________________ pigment molecules in
photosystem ________.

30. When light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll a molecules, what happens to its electrons?

31. Once these electrons become “excited”, they have enough energy to do what?

32. What are the chemicals called that pick up these freed electrons & where are they located?

33. These electrons lose _________________ as they are passed through a series of molecules
called the ______________________________________ chain.

34. Photosystem I chlorophyll molecules also absorb ________________, and its electrons
eventually combine with ______________________ to form NADPH.

35. What would happen if the electrons lost from photosystem II weren’t replaced?

36. ________________________ provides the replacement electrons for photosystem II when
water is __________________________.

37. Write the equation for the splitting of a water molecule.

38. What important gas is released when water is split?

39. ______________ or energy for a cell is synthesized during the light reactions in a process
called ________________________________.

Section 6-2 Calvin Cycle

40. The _________________ cycle is the second set of photosynthetic reactions that uses energy
stored in ________________ and _____________________ to make __________________
compounds.

41. Carbon atoms from ______________ are “fixed” into organic compounds in the Calvin
cycle in a process called carbon _________________________.

42. In what part of the chloroplast does the Calvin cycle occur?

43. Carbon dioxide combines with _______________ to make two molecules of
_____________________________.

44. PGA is converted into ________________, ADP, _________________, and
phosphate.

45. Carbohydrates made from PGAL in the Calvin cycle include the monosaccharides
______________________ and ______________________, the disaccharide
_______________________, and polysaccharides such as _____________________,
________________________, and _______________________.

46. Write the balanced equation for photosynthesis. (See bottom of page 118.)

47. Plants that fix carbon through the Calvin cycle are called what type of plants?

48. What are stomata & where are they located?

49. When would plant cells need to close or partially close their stomata?

50. Name 2 alternate carbon-fixing pathways used by plants in hot climates.

51. Plants that close their stomata during the hottest part of the day thus fixing carbon into four
carbon compounds are called ______________________. Name three.

52. CAM plants open stomata at ______________ and close during the _________________.

53. Name 3 environmental factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis.

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