Category: Cellular Processes

Cell Reproduction Lecture Notes B1

Cell Reproduction Lecture Guide

SECTION 8-1    CHROMOSOMES

DNA stores?                        Estimated length?

Coiled DNA in eukaryote nucleus called?

Chromosome shape?                              Made of?

Can be seen inside nucleus by?

Histones?

Function of histones?

Function of nonhistone proteins?

Sister chromatids?

When form?

Centromere?

Function of centromere?

Sketch sister chromatids & label centromere.

Prokaryotic chromosomes?

Shape?                         Number?                     Location & attachment?

Number of chromosomes in human body cells?               Called what?

How abbreviated?

Are all diploid numbers in organisms the same?   Explain and give examples.

Human body cells called what?               Examples?

Reproductive cells are called?                        Name them.

Chromosome number of gametes?                              Abbreviation?

Haploid number also called?                                      Haploid number for humans?

Fertilization?

Chromosome number that fertilization restores?

Fertilized egg called?                          Sets of chromosomes in zygote?

Chromosomes in egg and sperm called?             Name them.

Sex chromosomes of female?                                 Male?

Other 22 pairs or 44  chromosomes called?

Karyotype?

Homologous pairs of chromosomes?

Example of information contained in homologs.

SECTION 8-2    CELL DIVISION

All cells come from?                          Process called?                     

Same in prokaryotes & eukaryotes?

Binary fission?

Used by?                               Number of steps or stages.

Stage 1 of binary fission?

Stage 2 of binary fisssion?

Stage 3 of binary fission?

Is binary fission sexual or asexual reproduction?

Original cell that forms eukaryotes is called?

How new cells compare to each other & the original cell after cell division? Why?

Phases cell goes through in its life cycle called?

Number of phases?                  Name them.

Two parts of cell division?

Mitosis?

Interphase?

Also called?                          Length in cell cycle?

What’s occurring to cells in interphase?

Number of phases in interphase?                   Name them.

G1 phase?

S phase?

G2 phase?

Replication?

Results in forming?                                            Occurs when?

Why all new cells must have exact copy of DNA?

Daughter cells?

How form?                                       Compare to each other?

Two steps of cell division called?

Another name for mitosis?                                    What’s dividing?

Division of the cytoplasm called?                          When occurs?

Parent cell?

How multicellular organisms grow?

Number of steps or phases in mitosis?            Name them in order.

What’s made during mitosis?

When did the chromosomes replicate (make copies of the DNA)?

Prophase?

Chromatin condenses into what?                                 Held together by?

Two structures that disappear in prophase?

Centrosomes located near?                                        Number of centrosomes?

Contain what cylindrical bodies?                                 Found in plant &/or animal cells?
Made of bundles of?                                                   Where centrosomes move?

Help form?

Function of mitotic spindle?

Two types of spindle fibers?

Attach to centromere of sister chromatids?                                          Function?

Metaphase?

             Where are chromosomes moved?

What moves the chromosomes?

Center of cell called?                                        Ends of cell called?

Anaphase?

What happens to sister chromatids?

Once chromatids separate, they’re now individual what?

Telophase?

What happens to spindle fibers?

Chromosomes again tightly coil becoming what?

What two structures reform?

Cytokinesis?

How occurs in animal cells?

How occurs in plant cells?

How many new cells formed?                                    Cells called?

Size of new cells to each other?                   Size of new cells & parent cell?

Daughter cells & parent cell genetically identical or different?

Is mitosis sexual or asexual reproduction?

SECTION 8-3    MEIOSIS

Meiosis?

What happens to chromosome number?

Cells produced by meiosis are called?              Their chromosome number?

Fusion of gametes?                                                      Effect on chromosome number?

Number of chromosomes in human egg?               Sperm?            Zygote?

Sexual reproduction?

Combines what 2 cells?                                                Forms what cell?

Eggs?

Sperm?

How sperm reaches nonmotile egg?

Gametes produced by what process?

Where occurs in females?                                            In males?

What called in females?                                               In males?

Diploid egg or sperm after meiosis have what chromosome number?

How do daughter cells made in meiosis compare to the original cell?

How many divisions do cells undergo during meiosis?

How many new cells are produced?

How many main stages are there in meiosis?                                   Name them.

What occurs in Meiosis I?

What occurs in Meiosis II?

Chromosome number at the beginning of Meiosis I?

Homolog?

Synapsis?

Pair of homologs after synapsis called?                                    Sketch a tetrad.

First step in Meiosis I called?

            Are chromosomes visible?

Chromosome number in meiosis I?

Genes?

Crossing over?

Genetic recombination?

What 2 structures disappear?

What structure appears & attaches to homologs?

Where are tetrads moved during Metaphase I?

What happens to homologs in Anaphase I?

            What separates the homologs?

Random separation of homologous chromosomes called?

What happens to cytoplasm during Telophase I?

Chromosome number of new cells?                             How many new cells formed?

Do chromosomes replicate before Meiosis II?

            Name the 4 steps in Meiosis II.

How many new cells form in males?                          In females?

Polar bodies?

What usually happens to polar bodies? Why?

New cells in females called?                                      Cells after maturing called?

New cells in males called?                                         Cells after maturing called?

Chromosome number of new cells?

Evolution?

Which type of reproduction causes change in organisms?

Reproduction involving one parent?                                               Give 3 examples.

Chromosome number of parent & new cells?

Reproduction involving two parents?

Chromosome number of parent cell?                           Chromosome number of new cells?

Are organisms in a sexually reproducing population genetically identical?

Variations?

“Survival of the fittest”?

How environmental changes affect asexually reproducing organisms?        Sexually reproducing organisms?

BACK

Cell Respiration

 

Cellular Respiration
All Materials © Cmassengale

 

C6H12O6 + 6O2 —–> 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy (heat and ATP)

Energy

  • Capacity to move or change matter
  • Forms of energy are important to life include Chemical, radiant (heat & light), mechanical, and electrical
  • Energy can be transformed from one form to another
  • Chemical energy is the energy contained in the chemical bonds of molecules
  • Radiant energy travels in waves and is sometimes called electromagnetic energy. An example is visible light
  • Photosynthesis converts light energy to chemical energy
  • Energy that is stored is called potential energy

Laws of Thermodynamics

  • 1st law- Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

    Energy can be converted from one form to another. The sum of the energy before the conversion is equal to the sum of the energy after the conversion.

  • 2nd law- Some usable energy is lost during transformations.

    During changes from one form of energy to another, some usable energy is lost, usually as heat. The amount of usable energy therefore decreases.

 

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

  • Energy carrying molecule used by cells to fuel their cellular processes
  • ATP is composed of an adenine base, ribose sugar, & 3 phosphate (PO4) groups

 

 

 

  • The PO4 bonds are high-energy bonds that require energy to be made & release energy when broken

 

 

  • ATP is made & used continuously by cells
  • Every minute all of an organism’s ATP is recycled
  • Phosphorylation refers to the chemical reactions that make ATP by adding Pi to ADP ADP + Pi + energy «  ATP + H2O
  • Enzymes  (ATP synthetase& ATPase) help break & reform these high energy PO4 bonds in a process called substrate-level phosphorylation
  • When the high-energy phosphate bond is broken, it releases energy, a free phosphate group, & adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

 

 

 

Enzymes in Metabolic Pathways:

  • Biological catalysts
  • Speeds up chemical reactions
  • Lowers the amount of activation energy needed by weakening existing bonds in substrates

  • Highly specific protein molecules
  • Have an area called the active site where substrates temporarily join
  • Form an enzyme-substrate complex to stress bonds
  • Enzyme usable

enzyme substrate complex

 
Energy Carriers During Respiration:

NADH: A second energy carrying molecule in the mitochondria; produces 3 ATP

 

 

FADH2: A third energy carrying molecule in the mitochondria; produces 2 ATP

 

 

Mitochondria:

  • Has outer smooth, outer membrane & folded inner membrane
  • Folds are called cristae
  • Space inside cristae is called the matrix & contains DNA & ribosomes
  • Site of aerobic respiration
  • Krebs cycle takes place in matrix
  • Electron Transport Chain takes place in cristae 

Cellular Respiration Overview:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 —–> 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy (heat and ATP)

  • Controlled release of energy from organic molecules (most often glucose)
  • Glucose is oxidized (loses e-) & oxygen is reduced (gains e-)
  • The carbon atoms of glucose (C6H12O6) are released as CO2
  • Generates ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

 

 

  • The energy in one glucose molecule may be used to produce 36 ATP
  • Involves a series of 3 reactions — Glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle, & Electron Transport Chain

Glycolysis:

  • Occurs in the cytoplasm
  • Summary of the steps of Glycolysis:

    a. 2 ATP added to glucose (6C) to energize it.

    b. Glucose split to 2 PGAL (3C). (PGAL = phosphoglyceraldehyde)

    c. H+ and e- (e- = electron) taken from each PGAL & given to make 2 NADH.

    d. NADH is energy and e- carrier.

    e. Each PGAL rearranged into pyruvate (3C), with energy transferred to make 4 ATP (substrate phosphorylation).

    f. Although glycolysis makes 4 ATP, the net ATP production by this step is 2 ATP (because 2 ATP were used to start glycolysis). The 2 net ATP are available for cell use.

    g. If oxygen is available to the cell, the pyruvate will move into the mitochondria & aerobic respiration will begin.


     

    Net Yield from Glycolysis
    4 NADH2
    2 CO2
    4 ATP ( 2 used to start reaction)

     

h. If no oxygen is available to the cell (anaerobic), the pyruvate will be fermented by addition of 2 H from the NADH (to alcohol + CO2 in yeast or lactic acid in muscle cells). This changes NADH back to NAD+ so it is available for step c above. This keeps glycolysis going!

 

Alcoholic Fermentation

 

 

Lactic Acid Fermentation

 

Aerobic Respiration:

  • Occurs in the mitochondria
  • Includes the Krebs Cycle & the Electron Transport Chain
  • Pyruvic acid from glycolysis diffuses into matrix of mitochondria & reacts with coenzyme A to for acetyl-CoA (2-carbon compound)
  • CO2 and NADH are also produced

Kreb’s Cycle:

  • Named for biochemist Hans Krebs
  • Metabolic pathway that indirectly requires O2 
  • Kreb’s Cycle is also known as the Citric acid Cycle
  • Requires 2 cycles to metabolize glucose
  • Acetyl Co-A (2C) enters the Kreb’s Cycle & joins with Oxaloacetic Acid (4C) to make Citric Acid (6C)
  • Citric acid is oxidized releasing CO2 , free H+, & e- and forming ketoglutaric acid (5C)
  • Free e- reduce the energy carriers NAD+ to NADH2 and FAD+ to FADH2
  • Ketoglutaric acid is also oxidized releasing more CO2 , free H+, & e-
  • The cycle continues oxidizing the carbon compounds formed (succinic acid, fumaric acid, malic acid, etc.) producing more CO2, NADH2, FADH2, & ATP
  • H2O is added to supply more H+
  • CO2 is a waste product that diffuses out of cells
  • Oxaloacetic acid is regenerated to start the cycle again
  • NADH2 and FADH2 produced migrate to the Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

 

Net Yield from Kreb’s Cycle (2 turns)
6 NADH2
2 FADH2
4 CO2
2 ATP

 

Electron Transport Chain:

  • Found in the inner mitochondrial membrane or cristae
  • Contains 4 protein-based complexes that work in sequence moving H+ from the matrix across the inner membrane (proton pumps)
  • A concentration gradient of H+ between the inner & outer mitochondrial membrane occurs
  • H+ concentration gradient causes the synthesis of ATP by chemiosmosis
  • Energized e- & H+ from the 10 NADH2 and 2 FADH2 (produced during glycolysis & Krebs cycle) are transferred to O2 to produce H2O (redox reaction)

O2  +  4e-  +  4H+  2H2O

 

Energy Yield from Aerobic Respiration
Glycolysis Kreb’s Cycle Total
4 NADH2 6 NADH2 10 NADH2 x 3 = 30 ATP
0 FADH2 2 FADH2 2 FADH2 x 2 = 4 ATP
2 ATP 2 ATP                          4 ATP
38 ATP

 

  • Most cells produce 36- 38 molecules of ATP per glucose (66% efficient)
  • Actual number of ATP’s produced by aerobic respiration varies among cells

 

Cell Respiration Study Guide B1

Chapter 7        Study Guide        Cellular Respiration

1. Most eukaryotic cells produce only about ___________  ATP Molecules per Glucose Molecule.
2. What is the process by which glucose is converted to pyruvic acid?

3. At the begining of aerobic respiration, pyruvic acid bonds to a molecule called _______________________ to form Acetyl CoA.
4. The breakdown of pyruvic acid in the presence of oxygen is called ___________________  _______________________.

5. With every completion of the Krebs Cycle, how many ATP Molecules are made?
6. What is the waste product of the Krebs Cycle?

7. The conversion of pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and ethanol is called _____________________   _______________________.

8. The release of energy from food molecules in the absence of oxygen is _______________________     _____________________________.

9. What is the byproduct of the electron transport Chain?

10. How efficient is Anaerobic Respiration? __________%  Aerobic Respiration?

11. What is the first pathway of cellular respiration called?

12.What is the location of Glycolysis?

13. What is the scientific unit of Energy?

14. What do you call cellular respiration in the presence of oxygen?

15. Yeast produces ___________________ and _________________ in the process known as _____________________  _______________________.

16. In cellular respiration, glycolysis proceeds the _________________.

17. In cellular respiration, more energy is transferred in the  ________________ than in any other step.

18. Glucose molecules are converted into ________________  ______________ molecules in the process of glycolysis.

19. What is the location of the electron transport chain in prokaryotes?

20. The processes of glycolysis and the anaerobic pathways is called _________________.

21. What is the product of acetyl CoA and oxaloacetic acid?

22. What molecule is the electron acceptor of glycolysis?

23. The breakdown of organic compounds to produce ATP is known as __________  __________.
24. Glycolysis begins with glucose and produces _____________  ______________.

25. An important molecule generated by both lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation is ____________.

26.  In the first step of aerobic respiration, pyruvic acid from glycolysis produces CO2, NADH, H+, and ____________  ______________.

27. The electron transport chain is driven by two products of the Krebs Cycle – ______________________  and  ___________________________.
28. What happens to electrons as they are transported along the electron transport chain?

29. The energy efficiency of aerobic respiration (including glycolysis) is approximately ______________  ____________________.

30. Where in the mitochondria do the reactions of the Krebs cycle occur?

31. Where in the mitochondria is the electron transport chain located?

32. In alcoholic fermentation, ethyl alcohol is produced from ____________________.

33.  _______________, and ________________ supply electrons and protons to the electron transport chain.

34. The fourth step of glycolysis yields four ATP molecules, but the net yield is only two ATP molecules.  Explain this discrepancy.

35. Under what conditions would cells in your body undergo lactic-acid fermentation?

36. Glycolysis produces only 3.5% of the energy that would be produced if an equal quantity of glucose were completely oxidized.  What has happened to the remaining energy in the glucose?

37. Explain the role of oxaloacetic acid with respect to the cyclical nature of the Krebs cycle.

38  What happens to electrons that accumulate at the end of the electron transport chain?

39. Where in the mitochondrion do protons accumulate, and what is the source of the protons?

Back

 

Cell Respiration Worksheet Ch 7 BI

 

Cellular Respiration

 

Section 7-1 Glycolysis & Fermentation

1. What organisms trap sunlight & store it in carbohydrates?

2. What 2 organisms break down carbohydrates to release energy from cells?

3. What is the main energy currency of a cell?

4. Define cellular respiration.

5. What process begins cellular respiration & does it produce much ATP?

6. If there is no oxygen in cells, the products of glycolysis enter ________________________
pathways that yield no additional ______________________.

7. Fermentation is __________________________ because no oxygen is used.

8. If oxygen is present in cells, the glycolysis products enter the ______________________
respiration pathway.

9. Does aerobic respiration produce much ATP?

10. What simple sugar starts glycolysis?

11. In glycolysis, glucose is broken into 2 molecules of _______________________ acid
in the ______________________ of the cell.

12. In which part of the cell does fermentation occur? Is oxygen involved?

13. Name the 2 types of fermentation.

14. __________________________ acid fermentation helps make cheese & yogurt and also
occurs in _______________________ cells during heavy exercise.

15. What effect does lactic acid have on muscle cells?

16. Yeasts carry on what type of fermentation?

17. What alcohol is made in alcoholic fermentation?

18. Table _____________________________ and ____________________ are made by yeasts
during alcoholic fermentation.

19. One molecule of sugar produces _________________ kilocalories of energy.

20. _______________________________ respiration, like glycolysis, produces less energy than
____________________________ respiration of pyruvic acid.

Section 7-2 Aerobic Respiration

21. Aerobic respiration requires what gas?

22. How much more ATP does aerobic respiration produce than glycolysis alone?

23. Name the 2 major stages of aerobic respiration.

24. What is completed in the Krebs cycle?

25. The energy carrier NAD+ is reduced to what substance?

26. Which part of aerobic respiration makes most of the ATP (cell’s energy)?

27. Where does aerobic respiration take place in prokaryotes?

28. Where do these reactions take place in eukaryotes?

29. What is the mitochondrial matrix & what product of glycolysis diffuses into this matrix?

30. What is found inside the mitochondrial matrix to help catalyze the reactions of the Krebs cycle?

31. What is acetyl CoA & to what does it combine?

32. Define Krebs cycle.

33. The first acid produced in the Krebs cycle is _________________ acid. (Diagram p. 135)

34. Two energy carriers are reduced in the Krebs cycle; ________________becomes NADH
and _________________ becomes FADH.

35. Is any ATP made in the Krebs cycle?

36. What gas is a waste product produced in the Krebs cycle?

37. The _________________________________ is the second part of aerobic respiration.

38. Where does the ETS take place in eukaryotic cells?

39. _________________________ is made in the ETS when NADH and FADH2 release
______________________ ions.

40. What gas serves as the final acceptor of electrons in the ETS (electron transport system)?

41. Write the equation for this gas accepting electrons at the end of the ETS (see page 137).

42. What is the final product of the ETS?

43. How many ATP’s of energy are made during glycolysis?

44. How many ATP’s of energy are made during the Krebs cycle?

45. Each FADH can generate how many ATP’s of energy?

46. Each NADH can generate how many ATP’s of energy?

47. _______________________ NADH molecules & ______________________ FADH
molecules are made by aerobic respiration.

48. How many ATP molecules are made by the electron transport system?

49. What is the maximum number of ATP molecules that can be produced from each glucose molecule?

50. Write the summary equation for cellular respiration.

 

Cell Cycle Mitosis PPT Q

Meiosis – Gamete Production
ppt Questions

Meiosis Facts

1. Define meiosis.

 

2. What is the symbol for the diploid number of chromosomes in a cell?

3. What is the symbol for the monoploid or haploid number of chromosomes in a cell?

4. Is meiosis sexual or asexual reproduction?

5. How many times does a cell divide during Meiosis?

6. What are the divisions of meiosis called?

7. During meiosis, sex cells divide to form ____________.

8. Name the 2 gametes.

9. How many chromosomes do gametes have compared to a normal body or somatic cell?

10. If a human body cell has 46 chromosomes, how many chromosomes do the gametes (egg and sperm) have?

11. Where does meiosis occur in the body in males? in females?

12. Testes and ovaries are known as ____________.

13. Meiosis in males is called _____________ and produces ________ cells.

14. Meiosis in females is called _____________ and produces ________ cells.

15. a. Make a sketch of a diploid (2n=46)  sperm cell in Meiosis I and Meiosis II.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   b. Make a sketch of a diploid (2n=46)  egg cell in Meiosis I and Meiosis II.

 

 

 

 

Meiosis I

16. Name the 1st stage of meiosis.

17. When are chromosomes (DNA) replicated?

18. Each duplicated chromosome consists of a pair of _________ __________.

19. What attaches sister chromatids to each other?

20. What two structures in the center of a cell are visible at the beginning of Interphase I?

21. Name the 4 stages of Meiosis I.

22. What is the longest phase of meiosis? What pwercent of the division time is this?

23. During Prophase I, what happens to chromosomes?

24. __________ occurs after chromosomes condense.

25. Explain synapsis.

 

26. What is a tetrad?

 

27. A tetrad is made of ________ sister and two, nonsister ____________.

28. Sketch a tetrad.

 

 

29. What is meant by homologous chromosomes?

 

30. Homologous chromosomes form a ________ during Prophase I.

31. Homologs carry _________ controlling the ________ inherited traits.

32. What is a locus?

 

33. What is true about the loci of genes on homologous chromosomes?

34. Humans have _______ pairs of homologous chromosomes.

35. What are autosomes?

36. What is the last pair of chromosomes called?

37. What is the chromosome pair for a female?  a male?

38. Sketch a tetrad and show the location of two different genes on the chromatids.

 

 

39. Define crossing over.

 

40. Crossing over creates __________ in the chromosomes.

41. The sites where crossing over occurs are called __________.

42. Crossing over occurs between __________ chromatids.

43. Sketch a tetrad with crossing over occurring. Label the chiasmata.

 

 

 

 

44. Sketch a tetrad where crossing over occurred and shade the sections of the chromosomes that were exchanged causing variation.

 

 

45. Compare the size of an X and a Y chromosome.

 

46. Spindle and aster fibers form from centrioles during _______________ in humans.

47. What is the shortest meiotic stage?

48. What happens to the tetrads during Metaphase I?

49. When the chromosome pairs of the tetrad separate, they move ____________ to the opposite poles of the cell.

50. This random separation of homologs is called ______________ ___________.

51. What effect does independent assortment have on cells?

 

52. Give the formula for determining the number of variations in cells. 

 

 

53. If 2n=6, how many combinations are possible?

 

54. How many different combinations of sperm are possible in a human male?

55. What happens to homologous chromosomes during Anaphase I?

 

56. Do sister chromatids separate? Explain.

 

57. How many chromosomes are at the poles in telophase I?

58. In humans, the haploid number is _________.

59. ____________ occurs at the end of Telophase I forming _______ new daughter cells.

Meiosis II

60. Is DNA replicated again before Meiosis II?

61. Name the stages of Meiosis II.

 

62. What occurs during Prophase II?

 

63. Where are the sister chromatids during Metaphase II?

64. During what stage do sister chromatids separate from each other?

65. During Telophase II, the _____________ and nucleolus reform.

66. _______________ occurs again at the end of Telophase II forming __________ new daughter cells.

67. The 4 new cells at the end of Telophase II are _____________ or 1n cells.

68. In spermatogenesis, the newly formed gametes are called ____________.

69. In Oogenesis, the newly formed gametes are called ____________.

Variation

70. What is another name for variation?

71. Why is variation important?

 

72. Which individuals are most likely to survive & reproduce in a population?

 

73. What is this process known as?

74. Name the 3 sources of genetic variation that occur in sexual reproduction and tell when EACH occurs.

 

 

75. If a diploid cell is 2n=20, what will be the 1n number of the daughter cells?

76. How many daughter cells will there be at the end of meiosis?

77. What is a karyotype?

 

78. Where are the autosomes found on a karyotype?

79. Where are the sex chromosomes found?

80. How does a karotype of a Down Syndrome child look?

 

81. What is a zygote?

 

82. What process produces zygotes?  What cells join or fuse?