Category: Curriculum Map

Chapter 32 AP Objectives

 

Chapter 32     Introduction to Animal Evolution
Objectives
What Is an Animal?
1. List the five characteristics that combine to define animals.
2. Describe the role of Hox genes in animal development.
The Origins of Animal Diversity
3. Describe the evidence that suggests animals may have first evolved about a billion years ago.
4. Explain the significance of the Cambrian explosion. Describe three hypotheses for the cause of the Cambrian explosion.
5. Outline the major grades of the animal kingdom based on symmetry, embryonic germ layers, the presence or absence and type of coelom, and protostome or deuterostome development.
6. Distinguish between radial and bilateral symmetry. Explain how animal symmetry may match the animal’s way of life.
7. Distinguish among the acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, and coelomate grades. Explain the functions of a body cavity.
8. Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:
a. diploblastic and triploblastic
b. spiral and radial cleavage
c. determinate and indeterminate cleavage
d. schizocoelous and enterocoelous development
9. Compare the developmental differences between protostomes and deuterostomes, including:
a. pattern of cleavage
b. fate of the blastopore
c. coelom formation
10. Name five major features of animal phylogeny that are supported by systematic analyses of morphological characters and recent molecular studies.
11. Distinguish between the ecdysozoans and the lophotrochozoans. Describe the characteristic features of each group.

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Chapter 21 AP Objectives

 

Chapter 21    Genetic Basis of Development
Objectives
From Single Cell to Multicellular Organism
1. List the animals used as models for developmental biology research and provide a rationale for their choice.
2. Distinguish between the patterns of morphogenesis in plants and in animals.
Differential Gene Expression
3. Describe how genomic equivalence was determined for plants and animals.
4. Describe what kinds of changes occur to the genome during differentiation.
5. Describe the general process by which the ewe Dolly and the first mice were cloned.
6. Describe the characteristics of stem cells. Explain their significance to medicine.
7. Distinguish between determination and differentiation. Explain why determination precedes differentiation.
8. Describe the molecular basis of determination.
9. Describe the two sources of information that instruct a cell to express genes at the appropriate time.
Genetic and Cellular Mechanisms of Pattern Formation
10. Describe how Drosophila was used to investigate the basic aspects of pattern formation (axis formation and segmentation).
11. Explain how maternal genes affect polarity and development in Drosophila embryos.
12. Describe how gradients of morphogens may specify the axes of developing Drosophila embryos.
13. Describe how homeotic genes define the anatomical identity of the segments of a developing organism.
14. Describe how the study of nematodes contributed to an understanding of the role of induction in development.
15. Describe how apoptosis functions in normal and abnormal development.
16. Describe how the study of tomatoes has contributed to the understanding of flower development.
17. Describe how the study of Arabidopsis has contributed to the understanding of organ identity in plants.
18. Provide evidence of the conservation of homeobox patterns.

 
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Chapter 40 AP Intro to Systems Objectives

 

 

Chapter 40     Introduction to Animal Structure & Function
Objectives
Functional Animal Anatomy: An Overview
1. Define bioenergetics.
2. Distinguish between anatomy and physiology. Explain how functional anatomy relates to these terms.
Body Plans and the External Environment
3. Explain how physical laws constrain animal form.
4. Explain how the size and shape of an animal’s body affect its interactions with the environment.
5. Define tissue.
6. Distinguish among collagenous fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers.
7. From micrographs or diagrams, correctly identify the following animal tissues, explain how their structure relates to their functions, and note examples of each type.
a. Epithelial tissue
b. Connective tissue
i.  Loose connective tissue
ii. Adipose tissue
iii. Fibrous connective tissue
iv. Cartilage
v.  Bone
vi. Blood
c. Muscle tissue
i.  Skeletal (striated) muscle
ii. Cardiac muscle
iii. Smooth muscle
d. Nervous tissue
i.  Neuron
Introduction to the Bioenergetics of Animals
8. Describe the basic sources of chemical energy and their fate in animal cells.
9. Define biosynthesis.
10. Define metabolic rate and explain how it can be determined for animals.
11. Distinguish between endothermic and exothermic animals.
12. Describe the relationship between metabolic rate and body size.
13. Distinguish between basal metabolic rate and standard metabolic rate. Describe the major factors that influence energy requirements.
14. Describe the natural variations found in the energy strategies of endotherms and ectotherms.
Regulating the Internal Environment
15. Distinguish between regulators and conformers for a particular environmental variable.
16. Define homeostasis. Describe the three functional components of a homeostatic control system.
17. Distinguish between positive and negative feedback mechanisms.
18. Define thermoregulation. Explain in general terms how endotherms and ectotherms manage their heat budgets.
19. Name four physical processes by which animals exchange heat with their environment.
20. Discuss the role of hair, feathers, and adipose tissue in insulation.
21. Explain the role of vasoconstriction and vasodilation in modifying the transfer of body heat with the environment.
22. Describe animal adaptations to facilitate evaporative cooling.
23. Describe thermoregulatory mechanisms utilized by endothermic invertebrates.
24. Explain how ectotherms and endotherms may acclimatize to changing environmental temperatures.
25. Explain the role of heat-shock proteins in helping cells to cope with severe temperature changes.
26. Define torpor, hibernation, estivation, and daily torpor.

 
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Chemistry of Organisms

Chemistry
All Materials © Cmassengale

Composition of Matter

Ø  Everything in the universe is made of matter

Ø  Matter takes up space & has mass

Ø  Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in the substance

Ø  Mass & weight are NOT the same

Ø  Weight is a measure of the pull of gravity on an object

Question: Is the mass of an object the same on the moon as it is on the Earth? Is its weight the same? (Hint: Gravitational pull on the moon is 1/6 of that on the Earth.)

Ø  Matter exists in 4 states – solid, liquid, gas, & plasma

Ø  Solids have both a definite volume & definite shape (rock)

Ø  Liquids have a definite volume but no definite shape; they can be    poured (water)

Ø  Gases do not have a definite volume or definite shape, but they take the  volume & shape of their container

Ø  Plasmas have no definite volume, no definite shape, and only exist at extremely high temperatures such as the sun

Ø  Chemical Changes in matter are essential to all life processes

Ø  Biologists study chemistry because all living things are made of the same kinds of matter that make up nonliving things

Elements

Ø     Elements are pure substances which cannot be chemically broken down into simpler kinds of matter

Ø     More than 100 elements have been identified, but only about 30 are important in living things

Ø     All of the Elements are arranged on a chart known as the Periodic Table

Ø     Periodic charts tell the atomic number, atomic mass, & chemical symbol for every element

Ø     Four elements, Carbon – C, Hydrogen – H, Oxygen – O, and Nitrogen – N make up almost 90% of the mass of living things

Ø     Every element has a different chemical symbol composed of one to two letters

Ø     Chemical symbols usually come from the first letter or letters of an element like C for Carbon and Cl for Chlorine

Ø     Some chemical symbols come form their Latin or Greek name such as  Na for Sodium (natrium) or K for Potassium (Kalium)

Ø      Elements in the same horizontal period on the periodic table have the same number of energy levels (e.g. H & He in period 1 have only a K energy level)

[Periodic Table]
All Period 2 elements have 2 energy levels
(K & L)

Ø      Elements in the same vertical Family on the periodic table have the same number of electrons in their outermost energy level & react similar (e.g. Family IV, the Carbon family all have 4 electrons in their outermost energy level)

Atoms

Ø     Atoms are the simplest part of an element that keeps all of the element’s properties

Ø     Atoms are too small to be seen so scientists have developed models that show their structure & properties

Ø     Atoms consist of 3 kinds of subatomic particles – protons & neutrons in the center or nucleus, and electrons spinning in energy levels around the center

Ø     The nucleus is the center of an atom where most of the mass is concentrated

Ø     Protons are positively charged ( p+ ),  have a mass of 1 amu (atomic mass unit) , are found in the nucleus, and determine the atomic number of the element

Example:  Carbon has 6 protons so its atomic number is 6

Ø     Neutrons are neutral or have no electrical charge (n), have a mass of 1 amu, are found in the nucleus, and when added to the number of protons, determine the atomic mass of the element

Example:  Sodium has 11 protons and 12 neutrons so its atomic mass is 11+12=23 amu

Ø     Electrons (e-) are negatively charged, high energy particles with little mass that spin around the nucleus in energy levels

Ø     Seven energy levels (K, L, M, N, O, P, & Q) exist around the nucleus and each holds a certain number of electrons

Ø     The K energy level is closest to the nucleus & only holds 2 electrons, while the  L – Q energy levels can hold 8 electrons  

Ø     Electrons in outer energy level are traveling faster & contain more energy than electrons in inner levels  

Ø     The number of protons (positive charges) and electrons (negative charges in an atom are equal so the net electrical charge on a atom is zero making it electrically neutral

Ø     Stable or non-reactive atoms have an outer energy level that is filled with electrons  

Compounds

Ø     Most elements do not exist by themselves; Most elements combine with other elements

Ø      Compounds are made of atoms of two or more elements chemically combined

Ø      Chemical Formulas represent a compound & show the kind & number of atoms of each element  (e.g. H2O has 2 hydrogen & 1 oxygen)

Ø      Compounds have different physical & chemical properties than the atoms that compose them  (e.g. hydrogen & oxygen are gases but H2O is a liquid)

Ø      The number & arrangement of electrons in an atom determines if it will combine to form compounds

Ø      Chemical reactions occur whenever unstable atoms (outer energy level not filled) combine to form more stable compounds

Ø      Chemical bonds form between atoms during chemical reactions

Types of Chemical Bonds

Ø     Covalent bonds form between atoms whenever they share 1 or more pairs of electrons (e.g. H2O)  

Ø     Molecules form from covalent bonding & are the simplest part of a compound (e.g. NaCl, H2O, O2)  

Ø     Ionic bonding occurs between a positively & negatively charged atom or ion  

Ø     Positively charged ions have more electrons (-) than protons (+); negatively charged ions have more protons than electrons

Ø     Table salt (NaCl) forms when the 1 outer electron of Na is transferred to the outer energy level of chlorine that has 7 electrons (e-)

Ø     Sodium (Na) with 1 less e- becomes positively charged, while Chlorine (Cl) with 1 more e- becomes negatively charged; the + and – charges attract & form the ionic bond holding NaCl together

Ø     Other types of chemical bonding include hydrogen bonding

Energy

Ø     Energy is the ability to do work

Ø     Energy occurs in several forms & may be converted from one form to another

Ø     Sunlight is the ultimate energy for all life on earth

Ø     Forms of energy include chemical, electrical, mechanical, thermal, light, & sound

Ø     Free energy is the energy available for work (e.g. cells have energy to carry out cell processes)

Ø     Cells convert the chemical energy stored in food into other types of energy such as thermal & mechanical

Ø     Energy is used to change matter form one state into another (e.g. liquid into a gas)

Chemical Reactions

Ø     Living things undergo thousands of chemical reactions

Ø     Chemical equations represent chemical reactions

Ø     CO2 + H20—–goes to—–H2CO3  (carbonic acid) is a sample Chemical Reaction in living things

Ø     Reactants are on the left side of the equation, while products are on the right side

Ø Activation energy is required to start many reactions

Ø     Chemical bonds are broken, atoms rearranged, and new bonds form in chemical reaction

Ø     Plants use sunlight to produce sugars such as C6H12O6 glucose; the chemical energy from the sun is stored in the chemical bonds of glucose

Ø      Organisms eat plants, break down the sugars, and release energy along with CO2 & H2O

Ø      Exergonic reactions involve a net release of energy; while endergonic reactions involve a net absorption of energy

Ø      Energy must be added to the reactants for most chemical reactions to occur; called activation energy

Ø      Enzymes are chemical substances in living things that act as catalysts & reduce the amount of activation energy needed

Ø      Organisms contain thousands of different enzymes

Ø      Most enzymes end with –ase (e.g. lipase is the enzyme that acts on lipids)

Reduction-Oxidation (Redox) reactions

Ø     Reactions in which e- are transferred between atoms is a redox or reduction-oxidation reaction (e.g. formation of table salt NaCl)

Ø     In oxidation reactions, a reactant loses 1 or more e- & becomes positively (+) charged (e.g. Sodium atom becomes a Na+ ion)

Ø     In a reduction reaction, a reactant gains 1 or more e- and becomes negatively (-) charged (e.g. Chlorine atom becomes a Cl- ion)

Ø     REDOX reactions always occur together; the electron(s) from the oxidation reaction are then accepted by another substance in the reduction reaction

Solutions

Ø     A large percentage of the mass of organisms is water & many of the chemical reactions of life occur in water

Ø     A solution  is a uniform mixture of one substance in anther

Ø     Solutions may be mixtures of solids, liquids, or gases

Ø     The solute is the substance uniformly dissolved in the solution & may be ions, molecules, or atoms

Ø     The solvent is the substance in which the solute is dissolved

Ø     Water is known as the universal solvent 

Ø     Dissolving one substance in another does not alter their chemical properties

Ø     The concentration of a solution is a measure of the amount of solute dissolved in a given volume of solvent

Ø     Increasing the amount of solute increases the solution’s concentration

Ø     Aqueous solutions are solutions in which water is the solvent; these are important in living things (e.g. blood, cytoplasm of cell…)

Acids and Bases

Ø     The degree of acidity or alkalinity (basic) is important in organisms

Ø     The force of attraction between molecules is so strong that the oxygen atom of one molecule can actually remove the hydrogen from other water molecules; called Dissociation

Ø      H20—–GOES TO—– H+  +  OH-

Ø     OH- called hydroxide ion; H+ called hydrogen ion

Ø     Free H+ ion can react with another water molecule to form H3O+  (hydronium ion)

Ø     Acidity or alkalinity is a measure of the relative amount of H+ and OH- ions dissolved in a solution

Ø     Neutral solutions have an equal number of H+ and OH- ions

Ø     Acids have more H3O+ ions than OH- ions; taste sour; and can be corrosive

Ø     Bases contain more OH- ions than H3O+ ions; taste bitter; & feel slippery  

 

Examples of Common Acids

  • citric acid (from certain fruits and veggies, notably citrus fruits)
  • ascorbic acid (vitamin C, as from certain fruits)
  • vinegar (5% acetic acid)
  • carbonic acid (for carbonation of soft drinks)
  • lactic acid (in buttermilk)
 Examples of Common Bases

  • detergents
  • soap
  • lye (NaOH)
  • household ammonia

PH Scale

Ø     Compares the relative concentration of H3O+ ions and OH- ions

Ø     Scale ranges from 0 to 14; 0-3 is very acidic; 7 is neutral; 11-14 is very basic or alkaline

 

Ø    Litmus paper, phenolphthalein, pH paper, & other indicators that change color can be used to measure pH

Buffers

Ø     Control of pH is important to organisms

Ø     Enzymes function only within a narrow pH range; usually neutral

Ø     Buffers neutral acids or bases in organisms to help control pH

Chemistry Study Guide Chemistry On-line

 

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Chapter 21 – Genetic Basis of Development

 

Chapter 21    Genetic Basis of Development
Objectives
1. Explain how advances in recombinant DNA technology have helped scientists study the eukaryotic genome.

2. Describe the natural function of restriction enzymes.

3. Describe how restriction enzymes and gel electrophoresis are used to isolate DNA fragments.

4. Explain how the creation of sticky ends by restriction enzymes is useful in producing a recombinant DNA molecule.

5. Outline the procedures for producing plasmid and phage vectors.

6. Explain how vectors are used in recombinant DNA technology.

7. List and describe the two major sources of genes for cloning.

8. Describe the function of reverse transcriptase in retroviruses and explain how they are useful in recombinant DNA technology.

9. Describe how “genes of interest” can be identified with the use of a probe.

10. Explain the importance of DNA synthesis and sequencing to modern studies of eukaryotic genomes.

11. Describe how bacteria can be induced to produce eukaryotic gene products.

12. List some advantages for using yeast in the production of gene products.

13. List and describe four complementary approaches used to map the human genome.

14. Explain how RFLP analysis and PCR can be applied to the Human Genome Project.

15. Describe how recombinant DNA technology can have medical applications such as diagnosis of genetic disease, development of gene therapy, vaccine production, and development of pharmaceutical products.

16. Describe how gene manipulation has practical applications for agriculture.

17. Describe how plant genes can be manipulated using the Ti plasmid carried by Agrobacterium as a vector.

18. Explain how foreign DNA may be transferred into monocotyledonous plants.

19. Describe how recombinant DNA studies and the biotechnology industry are regulated with regards to safety and policy matters.

 
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