Biology Junction Team - BIOLOGY JUNCTION

Preap Biochemistry Study Guide

Biochemistry Review

1. Molecules with a slightly negative end and a slightly positive end are called ___________________ _____________________________.

2. A monomer of protein is called an __________________ __________________.

3. An attractive force between like particles is called ___________________________.

4. Organic molecules that catalyze reactions in living systems are ______________________.

5. The compound found in living things that supplies the energy in one of its chemical bonds directly to cells is ______________________.

6. Enzymes lower activation energy by___________ to the ____________________ and ______________________ bonds within the ________________________.

7. The monomers that make up nucleic acids are called __________________________.

8. The type of attraction that holds two water molecules together is called __________________________ __________________________.

9. The sharing of three pairs of electrons is called a ___________________ _____________.

10. The structural building block that determines the characteristics of a compound is called the _____________________________ _______________________.

11. Large carbon compounds are built from smaller molecules called ______________________________.

12. What is the type of reaction that forms large molecules from smaller ones? _________________________________ _____________________________.

13. What type of reaction breaks large molecules into smaller ones? _______________________

14. What is the by product of a condensation reaction? __________________________

15. The attractive force between unlike particles is called ____________________________.

16. A compound that is stored as glycogen in animals and as a starch in plants is ____________________________________.

17. Lipids are good energy storage molecules because they have many _________________-___________________ bonds.

18. What are the components of many lipids? ________________________ ______________________

19. What is the monomer of many polysaccharides? ______________________________

20. What kind of reaction allows amino acids to become linked together? ________________________________ _____________________________.

21. Nucleic acids function primarily to carry __________________________ ____________________ and direct _____________________ ______________________.

22. Tends not to react with water, “Water Fearing” ________________________________

23. Attracted to water molecules, “Water Loving” _________________________________

24. Water is called a ___________________________ ___________________________.
DIRECTIONS: Read Chapter 3, Biochemistry, and Answer the questions below as completely and as thoroughly as possible. Answer the question in essay form (not outline form), using complete sentences. You may use diagrams or pictures to supplement your answers, but a diagram or picture alone without appropriate discussion is inadequate.

1. Describe the structure of a water molecule, and explain how the electrical charge is distributed over the molecule.

2. Describe the structure of amino acids and proteins.

3. What are the structural differences between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides?

4. What is capillarity? Include defining Adhesion and Cohesion.

5. How does a condensation reaction differ from a hydrolysis reaction?

6. Give Three reasons why water is an effective solvent.

7. What is an organic compound?

8. What property allows carbon compounds to exist in a number of forms?

9. The presence of four electrons in the outermost energy level of a carbon atom enables
carbon atoms to form what THREE Things.

10. Living things contain many different proteins of vastly different shapes and functions.
What determines the shape and thus the function of a particular protein?

11. How does the structure of a phospholipid, linear molecules with a polar end and a
nonpolar end, relate to their function in the cell membrane?

Preap Genetics Study Guide

Genetics Review

The two genes or alleles that combine to determine a trait would be the organism’s _______________.

Type AB blood, having two genes dominant for a trait, is an example of ________.

State Mendel’s law of segregation.

Rr x Rr is an example of what type of cross —– P1, F1, or F2?

If both alleles are the same in a genotype, is the genotype homozygous or heterozygous?

Which cross is a cross between two hybrids —– P1, F1, or F2?

__________ dominance results in the blending of genes in the hybrid. Give an example using flower color.

What is another term for a heterozygous genotype?

The _____________ is the physical feature such as round peas that results from a genotype.

How many traits are involved in a monohybrid cross?

What type of organism was used in the first genetic studies done by Gregor Mendel?

What is a karyotype?

The two genes for a trait represented by capital & lower case letters are called __________.

How many traits are involved in a dihybrid cross?

Which of Mendel’s laws states that the dominant gene in a pair will be expressed?

If both alleles are the same, is the genotype homozygous or heterozygous? Write an example.

Write an example of a hybrid or heterozygous genotype.

The genes for sex-linked traits are only carried on which chromosome?

Who is considered to be the “father of genetics”?

A second filial or F2 cross is also called a ____________ cross.

The failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis (egg & sperm formation) is known as _________________.

A cross between two pure or homozygous organisms is called what type of cross —– P1, F1, or F2?

What genetic disorder results from a sex-linked trait that affects color vision?

The genetic disorder called _______________ is known as the “free bleeders” disease.

Having three 21st chromosomes causes the genetic disorder known as _________.

A person suffering from the genetic disorder called ______________ can not digest fats.

_____________________ disease is a genetic disorder where red blood cells carry less oxygen.

Work a P1 cross for plant height in peas.

Work an F1 cross for plant height in peas.

DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions below as completely and as thoroughly as possible. Answer the question in essay form (not outline form), using complete sentences. You may use diagrams or pictures to supplement your answers, but a diagram or picture alone without appropriate discussion is inadequate.

1. State the two laws of heredity that resulted from Mendel’s work.

2. What happens during meiosis that would allow genes located on the same chromosome to separate independently of one another?

3. List the steps in Mendel’s experiments on pea plants. Include the P generation, F1 generation, and F2 generation.

4. Write the equation for probability.

5. Distinguish between codominance and incomplete dominance. Give an example of each type of inheritance.

6. Define the terms, dominant and recessive.

7. Relate the events of meiosis to the law of segregation.

8. Explain the difference between a monohybrid cross and dihybrid cross. Give an example of each.

9. Explain how you would use a Punnett square to predict the probable outcome of a monohybrid cross. Draw a Punnett square to demonstrate your monohybrid cross.

10. Explain the terms genotype and phenotype.

11. Explain the terms homozygous and heterozygous.

BACK

Preap Articles

PreAP Biology Articles to Abstract

An abstract is a summary or synopsis of an article in a journal or magazine. The purpose of preparing an abstract is to acquaint you with scientific literature and to expose you to current topics in biology.

Special Instructions:

· Articles to be abstracted must be at least two pages (text) in length.

· Work cited must be included at the top of the abstract page.

· Triple space between the citation & the start of your paper

· Abstracts must be handwritten and at least two and a half pages in length. (DO NOT WRITE ON THE BACK!)

Write your name and period at the top of the abstract.

Stem Cell Research	Insect Repellants
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek	Battle of the Hermaphrodites
RNA Interference	An Endangered Species in the Stomach – The Bacteria Behind Ulcers
Dying To See	Racing For Sam – Progeria
Genomes for All	Chasing the Swine Flu

CLICK HERE FOR PRINTABLE COPY

MLA Style Periodical Citation:

Author. “Title of Article.” Title of Magazine Date: Page(s).

EXAMPLE:

Milton, Katherine. “Diet and Primate Evolution.” Scientific American August 1993: 86-94.

Abstracts DUE 1st Wednesday of each month August – May.
(Two abstracts due in January – first & 3rd Tuesday.)

Plant Structure Study Guide

PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

1. Cells that support the non-growing parts of plants are called ____________________.

2. Sugars are transported in vascular plants through what tissue?

3. The tissue in a vascular plant that is used to transport water and minerals is __________.
4. Which plant cells are the most abundant and least structurally specialized?
5. Long, narrow cells of xylem with thin separations between them are known as _______.
6. Short, wide cells of xylem with NO end walls function in water transport when the cells are __________.

7. Cells of phloem that help the sieve tube elements to function are called _________________.

8. Growth that makes a plant stem thicker is known as ____________________ ____________.

9. In the meristem regions of plants you would expect to find _____________________ cells.

10. Collenchyma cells would help support which parts of a celery plant?

11. The epidermis on the stems and leaves of young plants prevents ______________________.

12. The vascular cylinder of a root is surrounded by the __________________________.

13. A plant absorbs water and minerals through _____________________.

14. Which type of plant cells function in metabolic activities such as photosynthesis, storage, and healing?

15. Grasses usually have which type of roots?

16. In stems, vascular tissue is arranged to form ________________________.

17. What are the pores in the epidermis of leaves that control water evaporation called?

18.Primary growth in roots results in _________________________ of roots, and secondary growth results in _________________________ of roots.

19. What is the process of the evaporation of water from the leaves of a plant called?

20. The movement of sugars in a plant can be explained by the __________-
_____________ _____________.

21. What causes water molecules to stick together and pull each other up a plant stem?

22. Sugars made in photosynthesis in transported by being pumped into the ___________________________ _______________________________.

23. The function of the endodermis in roots is to _____________________ movement of substances into the ________________________ ___________________ of the root.

24. _______________________________ tissue forms the skin of a plant.

25. ______________________________ tissue consists of everything that is Not dermal or vascular tissue.

26. The growing regions of plants are called ________________________________________.

27. Meristematic tissue is the only type of plant tissue that produces new cells by _______________.

28. The elongation of stems and roots is called _____________ _______________.

29. Most seed plants have Three basic organs, _________________, ___________________ and
_______________________________.

30. Lateral roots form from the _______________________ inside the root, while lateral stems form from _____________________________ on the surface of stems.

31. Plant cells that are even, thick-walled, rigid cells _____________________________.

32. The name of the meristem between xylem and phloem _______________________.

33. The roots that branch off a primary root ________________________ _________________.

34. Plant cells that are irregular, thick-walled cells ______________________________.

35. A root system with an enlarged primary root _________________________.

36. Type of meristems found only in monocots _________________________.

37. Type of root system with many branch roots _______________________.

38. Type of plants cells that are thin-walled cells that can be cube-shaped or elongated _______________.

39. In Dicots primary growth occurs in _______________________ ________________________ and in monocots it occurs in _______________________ ______________________ and may also occur in _________________________ _________________________.

40. Primary growth results in the ________________________ of plant structures, and secondary growth results in the _____________________ of plant structures.

41. Monocots stems lack ____________________ ____________________ and therefore cannot produce _________________________ growth.

42. Annual rings in woody plants form as a result of the production of _____________________ ___________________, which contain cells of different sizes that were produced during different times of the growing season.

43. Water is transported from the roots to the leaves of a plant by the process of ___________.

Short Answer:
Answer the questions below as completely and as thoroughly as possible. Answer the question in essay
form (not outline form), using complete sentences. You may use diagrams to supplement your answers.

What are the TWO different types of vascular tissue in plants? Briefly describe each kind.

2. How are carbohydrates transported throughout a plant? (Explain the pressure-flow hypothesis).

3. Describe tracheids and explain their function.

4. What are the lateral meristems of plants, and what is their function?

5. What is the difference between primary growth and secondary growth?

6. Explain the main functions of stems, roots and leaves.

7. What adaptations of root maximize water and mineral absorption?

8. Identify the structures that a water molecule would move through on its way from the soil into the xylem of a plant root.

9. What is the relationship between stomata and guard cells? Describe how they function and Describe their role in the activities conducted by leaves.

10. What is transpiration? How is it related to the movement of water in plants?

11. What is the relationship between the Source and the Sink in the transport of sugars?

12. What are the Four types of tissue found in plants?

13. What are the Three basic types of plant cells? What are the functions of each?

14. Explain the cohesion-tension theory.

15. List five differences and five similarities between the structure of roots and the structure of stems.

Physiology of the Circulatory System

Physiology of the Circulatory System

Introduction:
The circulatory system functions to deliver oxygen an nutrients to tissues for growth and metabolism, and to remove metabolic wastes. The heart pumps blood through a circuit that includes arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. One important circuit is the pulmonary circuit, where there is an exchange of gases within the alveoli of the lung. The right side of the human heart receives deoxygenated blood from body tissues and pumps it to the lungs. The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the tissues. With increased exercise, several changes occur within the circulatory system, thus increasing the delivery of oxygen to actively respiring muscles cells. These changes include increased heart rate, increased blood flow to muscular tissue, decreased blood flow to non muscular tissue, increased arterial pressure, increased body temperature and increased breathing rate.

Blood Pressure
An important measurable aspect of the circulatory system is blood pressure. When the ventricles of the heart contract, pressure is increased throughout all the arteries. Arterial blood pressure is directly dependent on the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute and the resistance to blood flow through the arterioles. The arterial blood pressure is determined using a device known as a sphygmomanometer. This device consists of an inflatable cuff connected by rubber hoses to a hand pump and to a pressure gauge graduated in millimeters of mercury. The cuff is wrapped around the upper arm and inflated to a pressure that will shut off the brachial artery. The examiner listens for the sounds of blood flow in the brachial artery by placing the bell of a stethoscope in the inside of the elbow below the biceps.

Figure 10.1 The sphygmomanometer

At rest, the blood normally goes through the arteries so that the blood in the central part of the artery moves faster than the blood in the peripheral part. Under these conditions, the artery is silent when one listens. When the sphygmomanometer cuff is inflated to a pressure above the systolic pressure, the flow of blood is stopped and the artery is silent again. As the pressure in the cuff gradually drops to levels between the systolic and diastolic pressures of the artery, the blood is pushed through the compressed walls of the artery in a turbulent flow. Under these conditions, the blood is mixed, and the turbulence sets up vibrations in the artery that are heard as sounds in the stethoscope. These sounds are known as the heart sounds or sounds of Korotkoff. The sounds are divided into five phases based on the loudness and quality of the sounds.

Phase 1. A loud, clear tapping sound is evident that increases in intensity as the cuff is deflated.
Phase 2. A succession of murmurs can be heard. Sometimes the sounds seem to disappears during this time which may be a result of inflating or deflating the cuff too slowly.
Phase 3. A loud, thumping sound, similar to that in Phase 1 but less clear, replaces the murmurs.
Phase 4. A muffled sound abruptly replaces the thumping sounds of Phase 3.
Phase 5. All sounds disappear.

The cuff pressure at which the first sound is heard (that is, the beginning of Phase 1) is taken as the systolic pressure. The cuff pressure with the muffled sound(Phase 4) disappears (the beginning of Phase 5). is taken as the measurement of the diastolic pressure. A normal blood pressure measurement for a given individual depends on a person’s age, sex, heredity, and environment. When these factors are taken into account, blood pressure measurements that are chronically elevated may indicate a state deleterious to the health of the person. This condition is called hypertension and is a major contributing factor in heart disease and stroke.

Table 10.1: Normal Blood Pressure for Men and Women at Different Ages

	Systolic Pressure		Diastolic Pressure
Age in Years	Men	Women	Men	Women
10	103	103	69	70
11	104	104	70	71
12	106	106	71	72
13	108	108	72	73
14	110	110	73	74
15	112	112	75	76
16	118	116	73	72
17	121	116	74	72
18	120	116	74	72
19	122	115	75	71
20-24	123	116	76	72
25-29	125	117	78	74
30-34	126	120	79	75
35-39	127	124	80	78
40-44	129	127	81	80
45-49	130	131	82	82
50-54	135	137	83	84
55-59	138	139	84	84
60-64	142	144	85	85
65-69	143	154	83	85
70-74	145	159	82	85

Exercise 10A: Measuring Blood Pressure:
Note: These labs are ONLY for experimental, and not diagnostic, purposes.

A sphygmomanometer (blood pressure cuff) is used to measure blood pressure. The cuff, designed to fit around the upper arm, can be expanded by pumping a rubber bulb connected to the cuff. The pressure gauge, scaled in millimeters, indicates the pressure inside the cuff. A stethoscope is used to listen to the individual’s pulse. The ear pieces of the stethoscope should be cleaned with alcohol swabs before and after each use.

Procedure:
1. Work in pairs. Those who are to have their blood pressure measured should be seated with both shirt sleeves rolled up.

2. Attach the cuff of the sphygmomanometer snugly around the upper arm.

3. Place the stethoscope directly below the cuff in the bend of the elbow joint.

4. Close the valve of the bulb by turning it clockwise. Pump air into the cuff until the pressure gauge goes past 200 mm Hg.

5. Turn the valve of the bulb counterclockwise and slowly release the air from the cuff. Listen for pulse.

6. When you first hear the heart sounds, note the pressure on the gauge. This is the systolic pressure.

7. Continue to slowly release air and listen until the clear thumping sound of the pulse becomes strong and then fades. When you last hear the full heart beat, note the pressure. This is the diastolic pressure.

8. Repeat the measurement two more times and determine the average systolic and diastolic pressure, then record these values on the data sheet .

9. Trade places with your partner. When your average systolic and diastolic pressure have been determined, record these values on the blood pressure data sheet.

Exercise 10B: A Test of Fitness
The point scores on the following tests provide an evaluation of fitness based not only on cardiac muscular development but also on the ability of the cardiovascular system to respond to sudden changes in demand. Caution: Make sure that you do not attempt this exercise if strenuous activity will aggravate a health problem. work in pairs. Determine the fitness level for one member of the pair (Tests 1 to 5 below) and then repeat the process for the other member of the pair.

Procedure:
1. The subject should recline on a laboratory bench for at least 5 minutes. At the end of this time, measure the systolic and diastolic pressure and record these values below.

reclining systolic pressure ____________ mm Hg reclining diastolic pressure _______ mm Hg

2. Remain reclining for two minutes, then stand and IMMEDIATELY repeat measurements on the same subject (arms down). Record these values below.

standing systolic pressure ____________ mm Hg standing diastolic pressure _______ mm Hg

3. Determine the change in systolic pressure from reclining to standing by subtracting the standard measurement from the reclining measurement. Assign fitness points based on Table 10.2 and record the fitness data sheet.

Table 10.2: Changes in Systolic Pressure from Reclining to Standing

Change (mm Hg)	Fitness Points
rise of 8 or more	3
rise of 2-7	2
no rise	1
fall of 2-5	0
fall of 6 or more	-1

Cardiac Rate and Physical Fitness

During physical exertion, the cardiac rate (beats per minute) increases. This increase can be measured as an increase in pulse rate. Although the maximum cardiac rate is usually the same in people of the same age group, those who are physically fit have a higher stroke volume millimeters per beat) then more sedentary individuals. A person who is in poor physical condition, therefore, reaches their maximum cardiac rate at a lower work level than a person with of comparable age who is in better shape. Maximum cardiac rates are listed in Table 10.3. Individuals who are in good physical condition can deliver more oxygen to their muscles before reaching maximum cardiac rate than can those in poor condition.

Table 10.3: Maximum-Pulse Rate

Age (years)	Maximum Pulse Rate (beats/min)
20-29	190
30-39	160
40-49	150
50-59	140
60 and above	130

Test 2: Standing Pulse Rate
Procedure:
1. The subject should stand at ease for 2 minutes after Test 1.

2. After the two minutes, determine your partner’s pulse.

3. Count the number of beats for 30 seconds and multiply by 2. The pulse rate is the number of beats per minute. Record this on the fitness data sheet. Assign fitness points based on Table 10.4 and record them on the data sheet.

Pulse Rate (beats/min)	Fitness Points
60-70	3
71-80	3
81-90	2
91-100	1
101-110	1
111-120	0
121-130	0
131-140	-1

Test 3: Reclining Pulse Rate
Procedure:
1. The subject should recline for 5 minutes on the laboratory bench.

2. The other partner will determine the subject’s resting pulse.

3. Count the number of beats for 30 seconds and multiply by 2. ( Note: the subject should remain reclining for the next test!) Record it on the Data Sheet. Assign fitness points based on Table 10.5 and record them on the fitness data sheet.

Table 10.5: Reclining Pulse Rate

Pulse Rate (beats/min)	Fitness Points
50-60	3
61-70	3
71-80	2
81-90	1
91-100	0
101-110	-1

Test 4: Baroreceptor Reflex (Pulse Rate Increase from Reclining to Standing)
Procedure:
1. The reclining subject should now stand up.

2. Immediately take the subject’s pulse. Record this value below. The observed increase in pulse rate is initiated by baroreceptors (pressure receptors) in the carotid artery and in the aortic arch. When the baroreceptors detect a drop in blood pressure they signal the medulla of the brain to increase the heart beat, and consequently the pulse rate.

Pulse immediately upon standing = ___________________ beats per minute

3. Subtract the reclining pulse rate (recorded in Test 3) from the pulse rate immediately upon standing (recorded in Test 4) to determine the pulse rate increase upon standing. Assign fitness points based on Table 10.6 and record on the fitness data sheet.

Table 10.6: Pulse Increase from Reclining to Standing

Reclining Pulse (beats/min)	Pulse Rate Increase on Standing (# beats)
0-10	11-18	19-26	27-34	35-43
	Fitness Points
50-60	3	3	2	1	0
61-70	3	2	1	0	-1
71-80	3	2	0	-1	-2
81-90	2	1	-1	-2	-3
91-100	1	0	-2	-3	-3
101-110	0	-1	-3	-3	-3

Test 5: Step Test- Endurance
Procedure:
1. place your right foot on an 18-inch high stool. Raise your body so that your left foot comes to rest by your right foot. Return your left foot to the original position. Repeat these exercise five times, allowing three seconds for each step up.

2. Immediately after the completion of the exercise, measure the pulse for 15 seconds and record below; measure again for 15 seconds and record; continue taking the pulse and record at 60, 90, and 120 seconds.

Number of beats in the 0-to 15 second interval ____ X4= ____ beats per minute

Number of beats in the 16-to 30 second interval ____ X4= ____ beats per minute

Number of beats in the 31-to 60 second interval ____ X4= ____ beats per minute

Number of beats in the 61-to 90 second interval ____ X4= ____ beats per minute

Number of beats in the 91-to 120 second interval ____ X4= ____ beats per minute

3. Observe the time that it takes for the pulse rate to return to approximately the level as recorded in Test 2. Assign fitness pints based on Table 10.7 and record them on the fitness data sheet.

Table 10.7: Time Required for Return of Pulse Rate to Standing Level after Exercise

Time (seconds)	Fitness Points
0-30	4
31-60	3
61-90	2
91-120	1
121+	1
1-10 beats above standing pulse rate	0
11-30 beats above standing pulse rate	-1

4. Subtract your normal standing pulse rate (recorded in Test 2) from your pulse rate immediately after exercise (the 0-to 15-second interval) to obtain pulse rate increase. Record this on the data sheet. Assign fitness points based on Table 10.8 and record them on the fitness data sheet.

Standing Pulse (beats/min)	Pulse Rate Increase Immediately after Exercise (#beats)
0-10	11-20	21-30	31-40	41+
	Fitness Points
60-70	3	3	2	1	0
71-80	3	2	1	0	-1
81-90	3	2	1	-1	-2
91-100	2	1	0	-2	-3
101-110	1	0	-1	-3	-3
111-120	1	-1	-2	-3	-3
121-130	0	-2	-3	-3	-3
131-140	0	-3	-3	-3	-3

Data Sheet:

Blood Pressure Data

Measurement	1	2	3	Average
Systolic
Diastolic

Fitness Data

	Measurement	Points
Test 1. Change in systolic pressure from reclining to standing	mm Hg
Test 2. Standing Pulse Rate	beats/min
Test 3. Reclining Pulse Rate	beats/min
Test 4. Baroreceptor reflex Pulse Rate increase on standing	beats/min
Test 5. Return of Pulse Rate to Standing after Exercise	seconds
Pulse Rate increase immediately after exercise	beats/min
	Total Score

Total Score	Relative Cardiac Fitness
18-17	Excellent
16-14	Good
13-8	Fair
7 or less	Poor

Topics for Discussion:
1. Explain why blood pressure and heart rate differ when measured in a reclining position and in a standing position.

___________________________________________________________________

2. Explain why high blood pressure is a health concern.

___________________________________________________________________

3. Explain why an athlete must exercise harder or longer to achieve a maximum heart rate than a person who is not as physically fit.

___________________________________________________________________

4. Research and explain why smoking causes a rise in blood pressure.

___________________________________________________________________