Biology Junction Team - BIOLOGY JUNCTION

Chapter 40 AP Intro to Systems Objectives

Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure & Function

Objectives

Functional Animal Anatomy: An Overview
1.	Define bioenergetics.
2.	Distinguish between anatomy and physiology. Explain how functional anatomy relates to these terms.

	Body Plans and the External Environment
3.	Explain how physical laws constrain animal form.
4.	Explain how the size and shape of an animal’s body affect its interactions with the environment.
5.	Define tissue.
6.	Distinguish among collagenous fibers, elastic fibers, and reticular fibers.
7.	From micrographs or diagrams, correctly identify the following animal tissues, explain how their structure relates to their functions, and note examples of each type. a. Epithelial tissue b. Connective tissue i. Loose connective tissue ii. Adipose tissue iii. Fibrous connective tissue iv. Cartilage v. Bone vi. Blood c. Muscle tissue i. Skeletal (striated) muscle ii. Cardiac muscle iii. Smooth muscle d. Nervous tissue i. Neuron

	Introduction to the Bioenergetics of Animals
8.	Describe the basic sources of chemical energy and their fate in animal cells.
9.	Define biosynthesis.
10.	Define metabolic rate and explain how it can be determined for animals.
11.	Distinguish between endothermic and exothermic animals.
12.	Describe the relationship between metabolic rate and body size.
13.	Distinguish between basal metabolic rate and standard metabolic rate. Describe the major factors that influence energy requirements.
14.	Describe the natural variations found in the energy strategies of endotherms and ectotherms.

	Regulating the Internal Environment
15.	Distinguish between regulators and conformers for a particular environmental variable.
16.	Define homeostasis. Describe the three functional components of a homeostatic control system.
17.	Distinguish between positive and negative feedback mechanisms.
18.	Define thermoregulation. Explain in general terms how endotherms and ectotherms manage their heat budgets.
19.	Name four physical processes by which animals exchange heat with their environment.
20.	Discuss the role of hair, feathers, and adipose tissue in insulation.
21.	Explain the role of vasoconstriction and vasodilation in modifying the transfer of body heat with the environment.
22.	Describe animal adaptations to facilitate evaporative cooling.
23.	Describe thermoregulatory mechanisms utilized by endothermic invertebrates.
24.	Explain how ectotherms and endotherms may acclimatize to changing environmental temperatures.
25.	Explain the role of heat-shock proteins in helping cells to cope with severe temperature changes.
26.	Define torpor, hibernation, estivation, and daily torpor.

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Chapter 41 AP Obj Animal Nutrition

Chapter 41 Animal Nutrition

Objectives

Nutritional Requirements of Animals
1.	Compare the bioenergetics of animals when energy balance is positive and when it is negative.
2.	Name the three nutrition needs that must be met by a nutritionally adequate diet.
3.	Distinguish among undernourishment, overnourishment, and malnourishment.
4.	Explain why fat hoarding may have provided a fitness advantage to our hunter-gatherer ancestors.
5.	Explain the role of leptin in the regulation of fat storage and use.
6.	Define essential nutrients and describe the four classes of essential nutrients.
7.	Distinguish between water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins.

	Overview of Food Processing
8.	Define and compare the four main stages of food processing.
9.	Compare intracellular and extracellular digestion.

	The Mammalian Digestive System
10.	Describe the common processes and structural components of the mammalian digestive system.
11.	Name three functions of saliva.
12.	Compare where and how the major types of macromolecules are digested and absorbed within the mammalian digestive system.
13.	Explain why pepsin does not digest the stomach lining.Explain how the small intestine is specialized for digestion and absorption.
14.	Explain how the small intestine is specialized for digestion and absorption.
15.	Describe the major functions of the large intestine.

	Evolutionary Adaptations of Vertebrate Digestive Systems
16.	Relate variations in dentition and length of the digestive system to the feeding strategies and diets of herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.
17.	Describe the roles of symbiotic microorganisms in vertebrate digestion.

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Chapter 17 AP Objectives

Chapter 17 From Gene to Protein

Objectives

The Connection Between Genes and Proteins
1.	Explain why dwarf peas have shorter stems than tall varieties.
2.	Explain the reasoning that led Archibald Garrod to first suggest that genes dictate phenotypes through enzymes.
3.	Describe Beadle and Tatum’s experiments with Neurospora and explain the contribution they made to our understanding of how genes control metabolism.
4.	Distinguish between the “one geneÐone enzyme” hypothesis and the “one geneÐone polypeptide” hypothesis and explain why the original hypothesis was changed.
5.	Explain how RNA differs from DNA.
6.	Briefly explain how information flows from gene to protein.
7.	Distinguish between transcription and translation.
8.	Compare where transcription and translation occur in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes.
9.	Define codon and explain the relationship between the linear sequence of codons on mRNA and the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.
10.	Explain the early techniques used to identify what amino acids are specified by the triplets UUU, AAA, GGG, and CCC.
11.	Explain why polypeptides begin with methionine when they are synthesized.
12.	Explain what it means to say that the genetic code is redundant and unambiguous.
13.	Explain the significance of the reading frame during translation.
14.	Explain the evolutionary significance of a nearly universal genetic code.

	The Synthesis and Processing of RNA
15.	Explain how RNA polymerase recognizes where transcription should begin. Describe the promoter, the terminator, and the transcription unit.
16.	Explain the general process of transcription, including the three major steps of initiation, elongation, and termination.
17.	Explain how RNA is modified after transcription in eukaryotic cells.
18.	Define and explain the role of ribozyme.
19.	Describe the functional and evolutionary significance of introns.

	The Synthesis of Protein
20.	Describe the structure and functions of tRNA.
21.	Explain the significance of wobble.
22.	Explain how tRNA is joined to the appropriate amino acid.
23.	Describe the structure and functions of ribosomes.
24.	Describe the process of translation (including initiation, elongation, and termination) and explain which enzymes, protein factors, and energy sources are needed for each stage.
25.	Describe the significance of polyribosomes.
26.	Explain what determines the primary structure of a protein and describe how a polypeptide must be modified before it becomes fully functional.
27.	Describe what determines whether a ribosome will be free in the cytosol or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
28.	Describe two properties of RNA that allow it to perform so many different functions.
29.	Compare protein synthesis in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes.
30.	Define point mutations. Distinguish between base-pair substitutions and base-pair insertions. Give examples of each and note the significance of such changes.
31.	Describe several examples of mutagens and explain how they cause mutations.
32.	Describe the historical evolution of the concept of a gene.

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Chapter 18 – AP Objectives

Chapter 18 Genetics of Viruses & Bacteria

Objectives

The Genetics of Viruses
1.	Recount the history leading up to the discovery of viruses. Include the contributions of Adolf Mayer, Dimitri Ivanowsky, Martinus Beijerinck, and Wendell Stanley.
2.	List and describe the structural components of viruses.
3.	Explain why viruses are obligate intracellular parasites.
4.	Explain how a virus identifies its host cell.
5.	Describe bacterial defenses against phages.
6.	Distinguish between the lytic and lysogenic reproductive cycles, using phage lambda as an example.
7.	Describe the reproductive cycle of an enveloped virus. Explain the reproductive cycle of the herpesvirus.
8.	Describe the reproductive cycle of retroviruses.
9.	List some characteristics that viruses share with living organisms and explain why viruses do not fit our usual definition of life.
10.	Describe the evidence that viruses probably evolved from fragments of cellular nucleic acids.
11.	Define and describe mobile genetic elements.
12.	Explain how viral infections in animals cause disease.
13.	Describe the best current medical defenses against viruses. Explain how AZT helps to fight HIV infections.
14.	Describe the mechanisms by which new viral diseases emerge.
15.	Distinguish between the horizontal and vertical routes of viral transmission in plants.
16.	Describe viroids and prions.
17.	Explain how a non-replicating protein can act as a transmissible pathogen.

	The Genetics of Bacteria
18.	Describe the structure of a bacterial chromosome.
19.	Compare the sources of genetic variation in bacteria and humans.
20.	Compare the processes of transformation, transduction, and conjugation.
21.	Distinguish between generalized and specialized transduction.
22.	Define an episome. Explain why a plasmid can be an episome.
23.	Explain how the F plasmid controls conjugation in bacteria.
24.	Describe the significance of R plasmids. Explain how the widespread use of antibiotics contributes to R plasmid-related disease.
25.	Explain how transposable elements may cause recombination of bacterial DNA.
26.	Distinguish between an insertion sequence and a transposon.
27.	Describe the role of transposase in the process of transposition.
28.	Briefly describe two main strategies that cells use to control metabolism.
29.	Explain the adaptive advantage of genes grouped into an operon.
30.	Using the trp operon as an example, explain the concept of an operon and the function of the operator, repressor, and corepressor.
31.	Distinguish between structural and regulatory genes.
32.	Describe how the lac operon functions and explain the role of the inducer, allolactose.
33.	Explain how repressible and inducible enzymes differ and how those differences reflect differences in the pathways they control.
34.	Distinguish between positive and negative control and give examples of each from the lac operon.
35.	Explain how cyclic AMP and catabolite activator protein are affected by glucose concentration.

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Chapter 19 AP Objectives

	Chapter 19 Eukaryotic Genomes
Objectives
The Structure of Eukaryotic Chromatin 1. Compare the structure and organization of prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes. 2. Describe the current model for progressive levels of DNA packing in eukaryotes. 3. Explain how histones influence folding in eukaryotic DNA. 4. Distinguish between heterochromatin and euchromatin. The Control of Gene Expression 5. Explain the relationship between differentiation and differential gene expression. 6. Describe at what level gene expression is generally controlled. 7. Explain how DNA methylation and histone acetylation affect chromatin structure and the regulation of transcription. 8. Define epigenetic inheritance. 9. Describe the processing of pre-mRNA in eukaryotes. 10. Define control elements and explain how they influence transcription. 11. Distinguish between general and specific transcription factors. 12. Explain the role that promoters, enhancers, activators, and repressors may play in transcriptional control. 13. Explain how eukaryotic genes can be coordinately expressed and give some examples of coordinate gene expression in eukaryotes. 14. Describe the process and significance of alternative RNA splicing. 15. Describe factors that influence the life span of mRNA in the cytoplasm. Compare the longevity of mRNA in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes. 16. Explain how gene expression may be controlled at the translational and post-translational level. The Molecular Biology of Cancer 17. Distinguish between proto-oncogenes and oncogenes. Describe three genetic changes that can convert proto-oncogenes into oncogenes. 18. Explain how mutations in tumor-suppressor genes can contribute to cancer. 19. Explain how excessive cell division can result from mutations in the ras proto-oncogenes. 20. Explain why a mutation knocking out the p53 gene can lead to excessive cell growth and cancer. Describe three ways that p53 prevents a cell from passing on mutations caused by DNA damage. 21. Describe the set of genetic factors typically associated with the development of cancer. 22. Explain how viruses can cause cancer. Describe several examples. 23. Explain how inherited cancer alleles can lead to a predisposition to certain cancers. Genome Organization at the DNA Level 24. Describe the structure and functions of the portions of eukaryotic DNA that do not encode protein or RNA. 25. Distinguish between transposons and retrotransposons. 26. Describe the structure and location of Alu elements in primate genomes. 27. Describe the structure and possible function of simple sequence DNA. 28. Using the genes for rRNA as an example, explain how multigene families of identical genes can be advantageous for a cell. 29. Using a-globin and b-globin genes as examples, describe how multigene families of nonidentical genes may have evolved. 30. Define pseudogenes. Explain how such genes may have evolved. 31. Describe the hypothesis for the evolution of a-lactalbumin from an ancestral lysozyme gene. 32. Explain how exon shuffling could lead to the formation of new proteins with novel functions. 33. Describe how transposition of an Alu element may allow the formation of new genetic combinations while retaining gene function.
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