Category: 2nd Semester

Chapter 42 AP Obj Circulation

 

 

Chapter 42   Circulation & Gas Exchange 
Objectives
Circulation in Animals
1. Describe the need for circulatory and respiratory systems due to increasing animal body size.
2. Explain how a gastrovascular cavity functions in part as a circulatory system.
3. Distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems. List the three basic components common to both systems.
4. List the structural components of a vertebrate circulatory system and relate their structure to their functions.
5. Describe the general relationship between metabolic rates and the structure of the vertebrate circulatory system.
6. Using diagrams, compare and contrast the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, non-bird reptiles, and mammals or birds.
7. Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits and explain the functions of each.
8. Explain the advantage of double circulation over a single circuit.
9. Define a cardiac cycle, distinguish between systole and diastole, and explain what causes the first and second heart sounds.
10. Define cardiac output and describe two factors that influence it.
11. List the four heart valves, describe their location, and explain their functions.
12. Define heart murmur and explain its cause.
13. Define sinoatrial (SA) node and describe its location in the heart.
14. Distinguish between a myogenic heart and a neurogenic heart.
15. Describe the origin and pathway of the action potential (cardiac impulse) in the normal human heart.
16. Explain how the pace of the SA node can be modulated by nerves, hormones, body temperature, and exercise.
17. Relate the structures of capillaries, arteries, and veins to their functions.
18. Explain why blood flow through capillaries is substantially slower than it is through arteries and veins.
19. Define blood pressure and describe how it is measured.
20. Explain how peripheral resistance and cardiac output affect blood pressure.
21. Explain how blood returns to the heart even though it must sometimes travel from the lower extremities against gravity.
22. Explain how blood flow through capillary beds is regulated.
23. Explain how osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure regulate the exchange of fluid and solutes across capillaries.
24. Describe the composition of lymph and explain how the lymphatic system helps the normal functioning of the circulatory system. Explain the role of lymph nodes in body defense.
25. Describe the composition and functions of plasma.
26. Relate the structure of erythrocytes to their function.
27. List the five main types of white blood cells and characterize their functions.
28. Describe the structure of platelets.
29. Outline the formation of erythrocytes from their origin from stem cells in the red marrow of bones to their destruction by phagocytic cells.
30. Describe the hormonal control of erythrocyte production.
31. Outline the sequence of events that occurs during blood clotting and explain what prevents spontaneous clotting in the absence of injury.
32. Distinguish between a heart attack and a stroke.
33. Distinguish between low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs).
34. List the factors that have been correlated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
Gas Exchange in Animals
35. Define gas exchange and distinguish between a respiratory medium and a respiratory surface.
36. Describe the general requirements for a respiratory surface and list a variety of respiratory organs that meet these requirements.
37. Describe respiratory adaptations of aquatic animals.
38. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of water as a respiratory medium.
39. Describe countercurrent exchange and explain why it is more efficient than the concurrent flow of water and blood.
40. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of air as a respiratory medium and explain how insect tracheal systems are adapted for efficient gas exchange in a terrestrial environment.
41. For the human respiratory system, describe the movement of air through air passageways to the alveolus, listing the structures that air must pass through on its journey.
42. Compare positive and negative pressure breathing. Explain how respiratory movements in humans ventilate the lungs.
43. Distinguish between tidal volume, vital capacity, and residual volume.
44. Explain how the respiratory systems of birds and mammals differ.
45. Explain how breathing is controlled in humans.
46. Define partial pressure and explain how it influences diffusion across respiratory surfaces.
47. Describe the adaptive advantage of respiratory pigments in circulatory systems. Distinguish between hemocyanin and hemoglobin as respiratory pigments.
48. Draw the Hb-oxygen dissociation curve, explain the significance of its shape, and explain how the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen changes with oxygen concentration.
49. Describe how carbon dioxide is picked up at the tissues and deposited in the lungs.
50. Describe the respiratory adaptations of the pronghorn that give it great speed and endurance.
51. Describe respiratory adaptations of diving mammals and the role of myoglobin.
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Chapter 44 AP Obj Controlling Internal Environment

 

 

Chapter 44    Controlling the Internal Environment
Objectives
An Overview of Osmoregulation
1. Define osmoregulation and excretion.
2. Define Define osmolarity and distinguish among isoosmotic, hyperosmotic, and hypoosmotic solutions.
3. Distinguish between osmoregulators and osmoconformers. Explain why osmoregulation has an energy cost.
4. Distinguish between stenohaline and euryhaline animals, and explain why euryhaline animals include both osmoconformers and osmoregulators.
5. Discuss the osmoregulatory strategies of marine animals.
6. Explain how the osmoregulatory problems of freshwater animals differ from those of marine animals.
7. Describe anhydrobiosis as an adaptation that helps tardigrades and nematodes to survive periods of dehydration.
8. Describe some adaptations that reduce water loss in terrestrial animals.
9. Describe the ultimate function of osmoregulation. Explain how hemolymph and interstitial fluids are involved in this process.
10. Explain the role of transport epithelia in osmoregulation and excretion.
Water Balance and Waste Disposal
11. Describe the production and elimination of ammonia. Explain why ammonia excretion is most common in aquatic species.
12. Compare the strategies to eliminate waste as ammonia, urea, or uric acid. Note which animal groups are associated with each process and why a particular strategy is most adaptive for a particular group.
13. Compare the amounts of nitrogenous waste produced by endotherms and ectotherms, and by predators and herbivores.
Excretory Systems
14. Describe the key steps in the process of urine production.
15. Describe how a flame-bulb (protonephridial) excretory system functions.
16. Explain how the metanephridial excretory tubule of annelids functions. Compare the structure to the protonephridial system.
17. Describe the Malpighian tubule excretory system of insects.
18. Using a diagram, identify and give the function of each structure in the mammalian excretory system.
19. Using a diagram, identify and describe the function of each region of the nephron.
20. Describe and explain the relationships among the processes of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion in the mammalian kidney.
21. Distinguish between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons. Explain the significance of the juxtamedullary nephrons of birds and mammals.
22. Explain how the loop of Henle enhances water conservation by the kidney.
23. Explain how the loop of Henle functions as a countercurrent multiplier system.
24. Describe the nervous and hormonal controls involved in the regulation of the kidney.
25. Explain how the feeding habits of the South American vampire bat illustrate the versatility of the mammalian kidney.
26. Describe the structural and physiological adaptations in the kidneys of nonmammalian species that allow them to osmoregulate in different environments.

20. Distinguish between hibernation and aestivation.
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Chapter 27 AP Objectives

 

Chapter 27     Prokaryotes and the Origins of Metabolic Diversity
Objectives
Structural, Functional, and Genetic Adaptations
Contribute to Prokaryotic Success
1. Explain why it might be said that the history of life on Earth is one long “age of prokaryotes.”
2. Explain why prokaryotes are unable to grow in very salty or sugary foods, such as cured meats or jam.
3. State the function(s) of each of the following prokaryotic features:
a. capsule
b. fimbria
c. sex pilus
d. nucleoid
e. plasmid
f. endospore
4. Describe how prokaryotes carry out cellular respiration when they lack compartmentalized organelles such as mitochondria.
5. List the three domains of life.
6. Describe the structure, composition, and functions of prokaryotic cell walls.
7. Distinguish the structure and staining properties of gram-positive bacteria from those of gram-negative bacteria.
8. Explain why disease-causing gram-negative bacterial species are generally more deadly than disease-causing gram-positive bacteria.
9. Explain how the organization of prokaryotic genomes differs from that of eukaryotic genomes.
10. Describe the evidence of parallel adaptive evolution found in Lenski’s experiments on E. coli.
Nutritional and Metabolic Diversity
11. Distinguish, with prokaryotic examples, among photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs, and chemoheterotrophs.
12. Distinguish among obligate aerobes, facultative anaerobes, and obligate anaerobes.
13. Explain the importance of nitrogen fixation to life on Earth.
14. Describe the specializations for nitrogen fixation in the cyanobacterium Anabaena.
A Survey of Prokaryotic Diversity
15. Explain why new assays for prokaryotic diversity that do not require researchers to culture microbes have been so fruitful.
16. Explain why some archaea are known as extremophiles. Describe the distinguishing features of methanogens, extreme halophiles, and extreme thermophiles.
The Ecological Impact of Prokaryotes
17. In general terms, describe the role of chemoheterotrophic and autotrophic prokaryotes in the cycling of chemical elements between the biological and chemical components of ecosystems.
18. Describe the mutualistic interaction between humans and Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron.
19. Distinguish among mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. Provide an example of a prokaryote partner in each type of symbiosis.
20. Distinguish between exotoxins and endotoxins and give an example of each.
21. Describe the evidence that suggests that the dangerous E. coli strain O157:H7 arose through horizontal gene transfer.
22. Define bioremediation. Describe two examples of bioremediation involving prokaryotes.
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Chapter 28 AP Objectives

 

Chapter 28     The Origins of Eukaryotic Diversity
Objectives
Protists Are Extremely Diverse
1. Explain why the kingdom Protista is no longer considered a legitimate taxonomic group.
2. Describe the different nutritional strategies of protists.
3. Describe the three ecological categories of protists. Explain why the terms protozoa and algae are not useful as taxonomic categories.
4. Describe the evidence that supports the theory that mitochondria and plastids evolved by serial endosymbiosis. Explain which living organisms are likely relatives of the prokaryotes that gave rise to mitochondria and plastids.
5. Describe the evidence that suggests that mitochondria were acquired before plastids in eukaryotic evolution.
6. Explain the role of secondary endosymbiosis in the evolution of photosynthetic protists.
A Sample of Protistan Diversity
7. Describe the reduced mitochondria of diplomonads. Explain why this group is successful despite this feature.
8. Explain how trypanosomes avoid detection by the human immune system.
9. Explain why Plasmodium continues to pose a great risk to human health despite modern medical advances.
10. Describe the process and significance of conjugation in ciliate life cycles.
11. List three differences between oomycetes and fungi.
12. Describe the life cycle, ecology, and impact on humans of the following stramenopiles:
a. downy mildew
b. diatoms
c. kelp
13. Describe how amoeboid protists move and feed.
14. Explain why foraminiferans and gymnamoebas are not considered to be closely related, although both are amoebas.
15. Compare the life cycles and ecology of plasmodial and cellular slime molds.
16. Explain the problem faced by Dictyostelium aggregates of constraining “cheaters” that never contribute to the stalk of the fruiting body. Discuss how research on this topic may lead to insights into the evolution of multicellularity.
17. Explain the basis for the proposal for a new “plant” kingdom, Viridiplantae.
18. Describe three mechanisms by which large size and complexity have evolved in chlorophytes.

 
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Chapter 31 AP Objectives

 

Chapter 31     Fungi
Objectives
Introduction to the Fungi
1. List the characteristics that distinguish fungi from members of other multicellular kingdoms.
2. Explain how fungi acquire their nutrients.
3. Describe the basic body plan of a fungus.
4. Describe the processes of plasmogamy and karyogamy in fungi.
5. Explain the significance of heterokaryotic stages in fungal life cycles.
Diversity of Fungi
6. Describe the evidence that suggests that Fungi and Animalia are sister kingdoms.
7. Explain the possible significance of the flagellated spores of members of the phylum Chytridiomycota.
8. Describe the life cycle of the black bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifer.
9. Describe two alternate hypotheses to explain the reduced mitochondria of the microsporidia.
10. Distinguish between ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae.
11. Distinguish among the Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota. Include a description of the sexual structure that characterizes each group and list some common examples of each group.
Ecological Impacts of Fungi
12. Describe some of the roles of fungi in ecosystems.
13. Describe the structure of a lichen. Explain the roles of the fungal component of the lichen.
14. Explain how lichens may act as pioneers on newly burned soil or volcanic rock.
15. Describe the role of fungi as agricultural pests.
16. Define mycosis, and describe some human mycoses.
17. Describe three commercial roles played by fungi.
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