| Circulation in Animals |
| 1. | Describe the need for circulatory and respiratory systems due to increasing animal body size. |
| 2. | Explain how a gastrovascular cavity functions in part as a circulatory system. |
| 3. | Distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems. List the three basic components common to both systems. |
| 4. | List the structural components of a vertebrate circulatory system and relate their structure to their functions. |
| 5. | Describe the general relationship between metabolic rates and the structure of the vertebrate circulatory system. |
| 6. | Using diagrams, compare and contrast the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, non-bird reptiles, and mammals or birds. |
| 7. | Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits and explain the functions of each. |
| 8. | Explain the advantage of double circulation over a single circuit. |
| 9. | Define a cardiac cycle, distinguish between systole and diastole, and explain what causes the first and second heart sounds. |
| 10. | Define cardiac output and describe two factors that influence it. |
| 11. | List the four heart valves, describe their location, and explain their functions. |
| 12. | Define heart murmur and explain its cause. |
| 13. | Define sinoatrial (SA) node and describe its location in the heart. |
| 14. | Distinguish between a myogenic heart and a neurogenic heart. |
| 15. | Describe the origin and pathway of the action potential (cardiac impulse) in the normal human heart. |
| 16. | Explain how the pace of the SA node can be modulated by nerves, hormones, body temperature, and exercise. |
| 17. | Relate the structures of capillaries, arteries, and veins to their functions. |
| 18. | Explain why blood flow through capillaries is substantially slower than it is through arteries and veins. |
| 19. | Define blood pressure and describe how it is measured. |
| 20. | Explain how peripheral resistance and cardiac output affect blood pressure. |
| 21. | Explain how blood returns to the heart even though it must sometimes travel from the lower extremities against gravity. |
| 22. | Explain how blood flow through capillary beds is regulated. |
| 23. | Explain how osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure regulate the exchange of fluid and solutes across capillaries. |
| 24. | Describe the composition of lymph and explain how the lymphatic system helps the normal functioning of the circulatory system. Explain the role of lymph nodes in body defense. |
| 25. | Describe the composition and functions of plasma. |
| 26. | Relate the structure of erythrocytes to their function. |
| 27. | List the five main types of white blood cells and characterize their functions. |
| 28. | Describe the structure of platelets. |
| 29. | Outline the formation of erythrocytes from their origin from stem cells in the red marrow of bones to their destruction by phagocytic cells. |
| 30. | Describe the hormonal control of erythrocyte production. |
| 31. | Outline the sequence of events that occurs during blood clotting and explain what prevents spontaneous clotting in the absence of injury. |
| 32. | Distinguish between a heart attack and a stroke. |
| 33. | Distinguish between low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs). |
| 34. | List the factors that have been correlated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. |
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| Gas Exchange in Animals |
| 35. | Define gas exchange and distinguish between a respiratory medium and a respiratory surface. |
| 36. | Describe the general requirements for a respiratory surface and list a variety of respiratory organs that meet these requirements. |
| 37. | Describe respiratory adaptations of aquatic animals. |
| 38. | Describe the advantages and disadvantages of water as a respiratory medium. |
| 39. | Describe countercurrent exchange and explain why it is more efficient than the concurrent flow of water and blood. |
| 40. | Describe the advantages and disadvantages of air as a respiratory medium and explain how insect tracheal systems are adapted for efficient gas exchange in a terrestrial environment. |
| 41. | For the human respiratory system, describe the movement of air through air passageways to the alveolus, listing the structures that air must pass through on its journey. |
| 42. | Compare positive and negative pressure breathing. Explain how respiratory movements in humans ventilate the lungs. |
| 43. | Distinguish between tidal volume, vital capacity, and residual volume. |
| 44. | Explain how the respiratory systems of birds and mammals differ. |
| 45. | Explain how breathing is controlled in humans. |
| 46. | Define partial pressure and explain how it influences diffusion across respiratory surfaces. |
| 47. | Describe the adaptive advantage of respiratory pigments in circulatory systems. Distinguish between hemocyanin and hemoglobin as respiratory pigments. |
| 48. | Draw the Hb-oxygen dissociation curve, explain the significance of its shape, and explain how the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen changes with oxygen concentration. |
| 49. | Describe how carbon dioxide is picked up at the tissues and deposited in the lungs. |
| 50. | Describe the respiratory adaptations of the pronghorn that give it great speed and endurance. |
| 51. | Describe respiratory adaptations of diving mammals and the role of myoglobin. |
