My Classroom Material 118 - BIOLOGY JUNCTION

Matter Outline

MATTER

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Everything is made up of matter.
The formal definition is anything that has mass and takes up space
Can be measured or observed

c. Match the property to the definition below:

Mass the concentration of matter in an object

Weight the amount of matter in an object

Volume measure of the pull of gravity on an object

Density the amount of space an object takes up

II. Mixtures and Solutions

a. A bowl of cereal and milk is an example of a mixture. That’s a combination of two or more different kinds of matter, each of which keeps its own physical properties.

b. In a solution the particles of two or more substances are evenly distributed.

c. When a substance can be dissolved in another substance (like sugar in water) we call this solubility.

III. Changes in State

a. The three stages of matter are solid, liquid and gas.

b. Draw the arrangement of the particles in each state of matter and describe the speed of their movement as well as how close together they are using the diagram below.

gas, moving very fast,

& really far apart

liquid, faster moving,

& spread apart

Solid, slow moving,

& close together

c. When heat is added to a substance, the particles vibrate faster and move apart.

d. When heat is removed from a substance, the particles vibrate slower and move closer.

IV. Physical and Chemical Changes

a. When a physical change occurs the matter may look different, but

it doesn’t change.

b. When a chemical change occurs a new substance may form.

c. List three ways to know that a chemical change may have occurred.

gas produced, light, and heat.

d. Draw circles around chemical changes & underline physical changes below:

i. cutting a piece of paper into small pieces

ii. boiling water

iii. a nail rusting

iv. freezing water

e. The chemical property of combustibility describes substances that result in flame or burning.

f. The ability of a substance to react chemically is reactivity.

V. Conservation of Matter

a. Matter cannot be created nor destroyed.

b. In class we dissolved Alka Seltzer in a bottle of water. A gas was produced. We caught the gas in a balloon. Though a new substance was formed (the gas) the total mass didn’t change.

VI. Atoms and Electrons

a. The atomic number refers to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. The number ofprotons also determines what kind of element an atom is.

b. The element oxygen has 8 protons in its nucleus. All atoms that have 8 protons in the nucleus are oxygen atoms.

c. Be able to label the diagram of an atom. (see notes)

VII. Metals

a. Match the property to its definition by drawing a line:

Malleable electricity and heat travel easily through metals

Ductile shiny

Conductor used as a wire

Luster able to be hammered or rolled

VIII. Compounds and the Periodic Table

a. A compound is different from an element because a compound has more than one type of element in it.

b. The Periodic Table has elements arranged in order of increasing atomic number.

Introduction:
Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and other nutrients provide your body with energy necessary to carry on life activities. These compounds are present in the plants and animals you use as food. In this lab, you will test for specific compounds and then determine if those compounds are present in ordinary foods.

Objective:
To determine the compounds present in food.

Materials
McDonald’s Happy Meal (fries + drink included) (no toy!), beaker, graduated cylinder, test tubes, test tube clamp, hot plate, Benedict’s solution, Biuret solution, Indophenol (DPIP) solution, Lugol’s iodine solution, 1% silver nitrate solution, blender

Procedure:
Part I – Testing of Known Substances

Protein test:

Place 5 ml of the gelatin solution into your test tube.
Add ten drops of Biuret solution.
Observe any color change

Glucose test:

Place 5 ml of the glucose solution into your test tube.
Add 3 ml of Benedict’s solution.
Place the tube in a beaker of boiling water and boil for five minutes
Use test tube clamps to hold hot test tubes.
Observe any color change

Starch test:

Place 5 ml of the starch solution into your test tube.
Add 5 drops of Lugol’s iodine solution.
Observe any color change

Vitamin C test:

Place 5 ml of the vitamin C solution into your test tube.
Add 5 drops of indophenol solution.
Observe any color change

Chloride test:

Place 5 ml of the salt solution into your test tube.
Add 5 drops of silver nitrate solution.
Observe any color change.

Record your results in a data table:

Food Substance	Reagent test	Results
Gelatin	Biuret solution
Glucose	Benedict’s solution
Starch	Lugol’s iodine solution
Vitamin C	indophenol solution
Sodium chloride	silver nitrate solution

Procedure:
Part II – Testing McMush

Place the Happy in a blender. Add enough water to cover and blend until you get an emulsion.
Filter the mush in to a beaker.
Predict the substances you will find in the McMush solution. Record your predictions in the data table using a “ +” or “-“.
Repeat the reagent tests above using 5 ml of the McMush solution.
Describe and record your results.

Food Substance	Prediction	Reagent test	Results
Protein		Biuret Solution
Sugar		Benedict’s Solution
Starch		Lugol’s solution
Vitamin C		Indophenol Solution
Sodium Chloride		Silver Nitrate Solution

Adapted from a lab by C. Sheldon

Meiosis Labeling

Meiosis

On each of the images, label the phase of meiosis

1. _______________	2. _______________	3. _______________
4. _______________	5. _______________	6. _______________
7. _______________	8._______________	9._______________
10. _______________	11. A cell with a diploid number of 20 undergoes meiosis. This will produce ________ daughter cells, each with ________ chromosomes. 12. Synapsis occurs during this phase: _______________________ 13 How many different possible combinations are there for a cell that has 10 chromosomes (5 pairs): _____________ 14. Tetrads line up along the equator during this phase: ______________ 15. At the end of meiosis I, ________ daughter cells are created. These daughter cells are [ diploid \| haploid ]. 16. Meiosis occurs in what type of cells: ____________________________

Now label the photographs.
17. _______________	18. _______________	19. _____________
20. _______________	21. _______________	22. _____________
23. _______________	24. _______________	24. _____________
25. _______________

Genetics

Mendelian Genetics
All Materials © Cmassengale


1862	1868	1880

Genetic Terminology:

Trait – any characteristic that can be passed from parent to offspring
Heredity – passing of traits from parent to offspring
Genetics – study of heredity
Alleles – two forms of a gene (dominant & recessive)
Dominant – stronger of two genes expressed in the hybrid; represented by a capital letter (R)
Recessive – gene that shows up less often in a cross; represented by a lowercase letter (r)
Genotype – gene combination for a trait (e.g. RR, Rr, rr)
Phenotype – the physical feature resulting from a genotype (e.g. tall, short)
Homozygous genotype – gene combination involving 2 dominant or 2 recessive genes (e.g. RR or rr); also called pure
Heterozygous genotype – gene combination of one dominant & one recessive allele (e.g. Rr); also called hybrid
Monohybrid cross – cross involving a single trait
Dihybrid cross – cross involving two traits
Punnett Square – used to solve genetics problems

Blending Concept of Inheritance:

Accepted before Mendel’s experiments
Theory stated that offspring would have traits intermediate between those of its parents such as red & white flowers producing pink
The appearance of red or white flowers again was consider instability in genetic material
Blending theory was of no help to Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution
Blending theory did not account for variation and could not explain species diversity
Particulate theory of Inheritance, proposed by Mendel, accounted for variation in a population generation after generation
Mendel’s work was unrecognized until 1900

Gregor Mendel:

Austrian monk
Studied science & math at the University of Vienna
Formulated the laws of heredity in the early 1860’s
Did a statistical study of traits in garden peas over an eight year period

drawing of a flower cross-section showing both male and female sexual structures

Why peas, Pisum sativum?

Can be grown in a small area
Produce lots of offspring
Produce pure plants when allowed to self-pollinate several generations
Can be artificially cross-pollinate

Picture of Pisum sativum
GARDEN PEA

Mendel’s Experiments:

Mendel studied simple traits from 22 varieties of pea plants (seed color & shape, pod color & shape, etc.)
Mendel traced the inheritance of individual traits & kept careful records of numbers of offspring
He used his math principles of probability to interpret results
Mendel studied pea traits, each of which had a dominant & a recessive form (alleles)
The dominant (shows up most often) gene or allele is represented with a capital letter, & the recessive gene with a lower case of that same letter (e.g. B, b)
Mendel’s traits included:

         a. Seed shape — Round (R) or Wrinkled (r)
            b. Seed Color —- Yellow (Y) or Green (y)
            c. Pod Shape — Smooth (S) or wrinkled (s)
            d. Pod Color — Green (G) or Yellow (g)
            e. Seed Coat Color — Gray (G) or White (g)
            f. Flower position — Axial (A) or Terminal (a)
            g. Plant Height — Tall (T) or Short (t)
            h. Flower color — Purple (P) or white (p)

Mendel produced pure strains by allowing the plants to self-pollinate for several generations
These strains were called the Parental generation or P1 strain

Mendel cross-pollinated two strains and tracked each trait through two
generations (e.g. TT x tt )

Trait – plant height
Alleles – T tall, t short
P1 cross TT x tt			genotype — Tt
	t	t	phenotype — Tall
T	Tt	Tt	genotypic ratio –all alike
T	Tt	Tt	phenotypic ratio- all alike

The offspring of this cross were all hybrids showing only the dominant trait & were called the First Filial or F1 generation
Mendel then crossed two of his F1 plants and tracked their traits; known as an F1 cross

Trait – plant height
Alleles – T tall, t short
F1 cross Tt x Tt			genotype — TT, Tt, tt
	T	t	phenotype — Tall & short
T	TT	Tt	genotypic ratio —1:2:1
t	Tt	tt	phenotypic ratio- 3:1

When 2 hybrids were crossed, 75% (3/4) of the offspring showed the dominant trait & 25% (1/4) showed the recessive trait; always a 3:1 ratio
The offspring of this cross were called the F2 generation
Mendel then crossed a pure & a hybrid from his F2 generation; known as an F2 or test cross

Trait – Plant Height
Alleles – T tall, t short
F2 cross TT x Tt			F2 cross tt x Tt
	T	t		T	t
T	TT	Tt	t	Tt	tt
T	TT	Tt	t	Tt	tt

genotype – TT, Tt			genotype – tt, Tt
phenotype – Tall			phenotype – Tall & short
genotypic ratio – 1:1			genotypic ratio – 1:1
phenotypic ratio – all alike			phenotypic ratio – 1:1

50% (1/2) of the offspring in a test cross showed the same genotype of one parent & the other 50% showed the genotype of the other parent; always a 1:1 ratio

Problems: Work the P1, F1, and both F2 crosses for all of the other pea plant traits & be sure to include genotypes, phenotypes, genotypic & phenotypic ratios.

Mendel also crossed plants that differed in two characteristics (Dihybrid Crosses)
such as seed shape & seed color
In the P1 cross, RRYY x rryy, all of the F1 offspring showed only the dominant form for both traits; all hybrids, RrYy

Traits: Seed Shape & Seed Color
Alleles: R round Y yellow r wrinkled y green
P1 Cross: RRYY x r r yy
	ry	Genotype:	RrYy
RY	RrYy	Phenotype:	Round yellow seed
Genotypic ratio:	All alike
		Phenotypic ratio:	All Alike

When Mendel crossed 2 hybrid plants (F1 cross), he got the following results

Traits: Seed Shape & Seed Color
Alleles: R round Y yellow r wrinkled y green
F1 Cross: RrYy x RrYy
	RY	Ry	rY	ry
RY	RRYY	RRYy	RrYY	RrYy
Ry	RRYy	RRyy	RrYy	Rryy
rY	RrYY	RrYy	r rYY	r rYy
ry	RrYy	Rryy	r rYy	r ryy

Genotypes	Genotypic Ratios	Phenotypes	Phenotypic Ratios
RRYY	1	Round yellow seed	9
RRYy	2
RrYY	2
RrYy	4
RRyy	1	Round green seed	3
Rryy	2
r rYY	1	Wrinkled yellow seed	3
r rYy	2
r ryy	1	Wrinkled green seed	1

Problems: Choose two other pea plant traits and work the P1 and F1 dihybrid crosses. Be sure to show the trait, alleles, genotypes, phenotypes, and all ratios.

Results of Mendel’s Experiments:

Inheritable factors or genes are responsible for all heritable characteristics
Phenotype is based on Genotype
Each trait is based on two genes, one from the mother and the other from the father
True-breeding individuals are homozygous ( both alleles) are the same
Law of Dominance states that when different alleles for a characteristic are inherited (heterozygous), the trait of only one (the dominant one) will be expressed. The recessive trait’s phenotype only appears in true-breeding (homozygous) individuals

Trait: Pod Color
Genotypes:	Phenotype:
GG	Green Pod
Gg	Green Pod
gg	Yellow Pod

Law of Segregation states that each genetic trait is produced by a pair of alleles which separate (segregate) during reproduction

Rr
R	r

Law of Independent Assortment states that each factor (gene) is distributed (assorted) randomly and independently of one another in the formation of gametes

RrYy

RY	Ry	rY	ry

Other Patterns of Inheritance:

Incomplete dominance occurs in the heterozygous or hybrid genotype where the 2 alleles blend to give a different phenotype
Flower color in snapdragons shows incomplete dominance whenever a red flower is crossed with a white flower to produce pink flowers

In some populations, multiple alleles (3 or more) may determine a trait such as in ABO Blood type
Alleles A & B are dominant, while O is recessive

Genotype	Phenotype
IOIO	Type O
IAIO	Type A
IAIA	Type A
IBIO	Type B
IBIB	Type B
IAIB	Type AB

Polygenic inheritance occurs whenever many variations in the resulting phenotypes such as in hair, skin, & eye color
The expression of a gene is also influenced by environmental factors (example: seasonal change in fur color)

Mammal

Mammals
All Materials © Cmassengale

Main Characteristics of mammals:

Endothermy – maintain high, constant body temperature through their metabolism
Pelage – hair or fur made of protein called keratin covering all or part of the body for insulation & camouflage
Four chambered heart ( two atria & two ventricles) keep oxygenated & deoxygenated blood from mixing; double circulation

Mammal Heart

Mammary glands in females are modified sweat glands that make milk containing sugars, proteins, & fats to nourish young
Single jawbone
Specialized teeth for biting, cutting, & chewing
Highly developed brain (large cerebrum)

Diaphragm – muscle below lungs that aids respiration
Most are viviparous (live birth)
Uterus in females where young develop
Placenta lines uterus & provides nutrients and gas & waste exchange for developing young
Have sweat glands for cooling & scent glands for attracting mates & marking territories

Mammal Ancestors:

Fossil records show mammals arose from group of reptiles called therapsids at the end of the Paleozoic era
Therapsids were endotherms with specialized teeth like mammals

Lycaenops: drawing by Steve Kirk - Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals, ed.. Barry Cox

TherapsidEarly Mammals:

First mammalian fossil found in Mesozoic era (hair, single jawbone, specialized teeth, & endothermic)
Early mammals were small, shrew like, insect eaters that had large eye sockets making them probably nocturnal
When dinosaurs became extinct, new habitats & food supplies opened up for mammals
“Age of mammals” occurred during Cenozoic era
Oviparous (egg laying) monotremes evolved first


Echidna	Platypus
Monotremes

Viviparous (live birth) marsupials with incomplete uterine development appeared next & then placental mammals


Tasmanian Devil	Armadillo
Marsupial	Placental

Section 1 Review

Specializations of the mouth & digestive system:

Single jawbone
Incisors – specialized, chisel like front teeth for biting & chewing
Canines – pointed teeth or fangs behind incisors to help grip, puncture, & tear prey
Bicuspids – teeth with two points behind the canines used to shear & shred food
Molars – flattened back teeth to grind & crush
Baleen – thin plates in the roof of the mouth of some whales that strain food from water
Microorganisms living in the gut help some mammals digest cellulose from plants
Hoofed mammals (cows, sheep, giraffes…) have a four-chambered stomach with bacteria living in the first chamber or rumen
Cud – digested food in the rumen that is regurgitated, swallowed, & then chewed again to break down plant cellulose
Caecum – stomach chamber in elephants, horses, & rabbits that contains bacteria to digest cellulose

Adaptations for Endothermy:

High demand for oxygen
Right & left sides of heart separated by septum so oxygenated & deoxygenated blood don’t mix
Left side of heart pumps blood to lungs & back (pulmonary circulation)
Right side of blood pumps oxygenated blood to body cells (systemic circulation)
Diaphragm – sheet of muscle below lungs that moves up & down in chest to change air pressure so gas moves into & out of the lungs
Alveoli or air sacs in the lungs are surrounded by capillaries and increase the surface area for the absorption of oxygen
Hair or fur and a fat layer insulates and prevents heat loss

Nervous System Adaptations:

Largest vertebrate brain
Cerebrum surface is folded to increase surface area without increasing volume
Cerebrum controls sensory organs, coordinates movement, regulates behavior, & is responsible for memory & learning
Have five major senses — vision, hearing, olfaction (smell), touch, & taste
Bats, whales, dolphins, porpoises use echolocation (bouncing off of high frequency sounds) to navigate & find prey

Reproductive Adaptations:

Each of the 3 mammal groups — monotremes, marsupials, & placentals— has a unique reproductive pattern
Monotreme females lay 1-2 leathery-shelled eggs containing yolk & incubates them with her body heat

Young monotremes are small & partially developed at hatching so depend on mother for protection and milk from mammary glands
Marsupials have short development period inside of the mother & newborns must crawl to the mother’s pouch or marsupium after birth, attach to a nipple for milk, and finish developing

photograph of kangaroo and her joey
Mother Kangaroo & “Joey”

Placentals are the largest group of mammals
Gestation (period of development inside mother) is longer in placental mammals
Nutrients, wastes, gases exchanged through membrane lining uterus called the placenta

Section 2 Review

Order Monotremata:

Oviparous
Not completely endothermic (lower body temperature & it fluctuates)
Have a cloaca where wastes, eggs, & sperm are emptied
Includes duck-billed platypus & spiny anteaters or echidna


Echidna	Platypus
Monotremes

Live only in Australia & New Zealand
Platypus:
1. Waterproof fur
2.Webbed feet
3. Flattened tail for swimming
4. Flat, sensitive, rubbery muzzle used to root for worms & crayfish
5. Digs a den in bank of river to lay eggs
6. Female curls around eggs & incubates them
7. Newborns lick milk from nippleless mammary glands
Echidnas:
1. Terrestrial
2. Coat of protective spines
3. Long snout to probe ant hills & termite nests
4. Incubate eggs in a brood pouch on female’s belly

Order Marsupialia:

Found in New Guinea, Australia, & the Americas
Dominate animal in Australia due to lack of competition from placental mammals
Known as pouched animals
Pouch called marsupium
Viviparous (live birth)
Tiny, immature young must crawl to mother’s pouch after birth
Young attach to mammary gland nipple to nurse until able to survive outside of pouch
Includes opossum, kangaroo, wombat, & koala


Koala & baby	Opossum

Placental Mammals :

Young carried in uterus & nourished by placenta
Gestation periods (time of development within uterus) varies among species
Adapted for life on land in water, and in air
Mammal species make up 95 % of all animals
At least 18 orders exist

Order Insectivora:

Includes moles, hedgehogs, & shrews
Small with high metabolic rate
Found in North America, Europe, & Asia
Have long, pointed noses to grub for insects & worms
Teeth adapted to pick up & pierce prey
Adapted to live on & under ground, in trees, and in water
Shrews feed above ground & have claws to help sweep invertebrates into their mouths
Moles live underground, have reduced eyes & no external ears, and have short limbs to dig tunnels


Mole	Shrew

Order Rodentia:

Largest mammal order (40% of all species)
Found everywhere except Antarctica
Includes squirrels, chipmunks, gophers, rats, mice, & porcupines
Have two instead of four incisors
Teeth continue to grow throughout their life
Feed on hard seeds, twigs, roots, & bark
Gnawing keeps incisors sharp
High reproductive capacity
Guinea pig & capybaras are two rodents found in South America


Chipmunk	Porcupine

Order Lagomorpha:

includes rabbits, hares, & pikas
Found worldwide
Have a double row of upper incisors & two large front teeth backed up by two smaller teeth
Continuous growing teeth
Herbivores


Pika	Hare

Order Edentata:

Includes anteaters, armadillos, & sloths
Found in North, Central, & South America
Means “without teeth”
Only anteaters are completely toothless
Armadillos & sloths have peg-like teeth without enamel
Have long sticky tongues & claws on powerful front paws to open ant hills& termite nests
Sloths are herbivores
Armadillos eat small reptiles, frogs, mollusks, & dead animals


Armadillo	Sloth

Order Chiroptera:

Only flying mammals
Includes bats found everywhere except polar regions
Front limb is modified into a wing with a skin membrane stretching from the finger bones to the hind limb
Clawed thumb, extending from top edge of wing, is used for walking, climbing, & grasping
Most are nocturnal (night active)
Use echolocation (emission of high frequency sounds that bounce off objects) to navigate and locate food
Have small eyes & large ears
Feed mainly on insects
Tropical bats don’t use echolocation, but have large eyes & keen sense of smell to find fruit to feed on & nectar

Order Cetacea:

Includes whales, dolphins, & porpoises
Most inhabit oceans, but some dolphins live in freshwater rivers
Have a fish shaped body
Forelimbs modified as flippers
No hind limbs
Broad, flat tails to propel through water
Breathe through a blowhole on top of the head
Divided into two groups — toothed whales & baleen whales
Toothed whales:
1. Includes beaked, sperm, beluga, & killer whales; narwhals; dolphins; porpoises
2. Have 1 to more than 100 teeth
3. Prey on fish, squid, seals, & other whales


Narwhal	Beluga	Orca

Baleen whales:
1. Lack teeth
2. Includes blue, grey, right & humpbacked whales
2. Have baleen or thin plates of fingernail like material that hangs from the roof of the mouth
3. Baleen strain shrimp & other invertebrates from water as food


Blue Whale	Humpbacked Whale

Order Sirenia:

Includes manatees & dugongs
Large herbivores
Inhabit tropical seas, estuaries, & rivers
Front limbs modified into flippers
No hind limbs
Flattened tail for propulsion


Manatees	Dugongs

Order Carnivora:

Found worldwide
Includes cats, dogs, raccoons, bears, hyenas, & otters
Meat eaters (carnivores) mainly
Many feed on both plants & animals (omnivores)
Have long canine teeth & strong jaws
Clawed toes for seizing & holding prey
Keen sense of sight & smell
Long limbs for running fast


Raccoons	Hyena

Order Pinnipedia:

Aquatic carnivores
Includes sea lions, seals, & walruses
Streamlined bodies adapted for swimming
Steer & propel through water using broad, flattened tail
Called pinnipeds
Return to land to feed & give birth
Spend much of their time in cold water
Large land carnivores so this helps maintain endothermy
Can remain under water for 5 minutes to an hour for some species

Order Artiodactyla:

Known as ungulates or hoofed mammals
Have an even number of toes
Includes deer, elk, bison, moose, sheep, cows, caribou, goats, pigs, & camels
Herbivores
Have large flat molars for grinding plants
Found everywhere except Antarctica
Cloven or split hooves
Fast runners (used for defense)
Have storage chamber called rumen in stomach where bacteria break down cellulose
Stored food called cud is chewed again & then swallowed to go through digestive system a second time

Order Perissodactyla:

Odd toed ungulates
Includes horses, zebras, rhinoceroses, & tapir
Most are native to Africa & Asia
Tapirs are found in Central & South America
Have a large, convoluted caecum or blind sac near the small intestine where bacteria digest cellulose


Caribou (even-toed)	Tapir (odd-toed)

Order Proboscidea:

Have a boneless trunk or proboscis
Includes the African & Asian elephant
Wooly mammoth is an extinct member of this order
Largest terrestrial mammal
Weigh more than 6 tons
Feed on plants up to 18 hours a day
Proboscis used to gather leaves from high branches & to suck water without lowering the head
Modified incisors called tusks help dig for roots & strip bark
Jagged molars up to 30 cm long grind plants
Have the longest gestation period (20 months for females & 22 months for males)
Females can continue to have calves until they are 70 years old