My Classroom Material 120 - BIOLOGY JUNCTION

Mammal

Mammals
All Materials © Cmassengale

Main Characteristics of mammals:

Endothermy – maintain high, constant body temperature through their metabolism
Pelage – hair or fur made of protein called keratin covering all or part of the body for insulation & camouflage
Four chambered heart ( two atria & two ventricles) keep oxygenated & deoxygenated blood from mixing; double circulation

Mammal Heart

Mammary glands in females are modified sweat glands that make milk containing sugars, proteins, & fats to nourish young
Single jawbone
Specialized teeth for biting, cutting, & chewing
Highly developed brain (large cerebrum)

Diaphragm – muscle below lungs that aids respiration
Most are viviparous (live birth)
Uterus in females where young develop
Placenta lines uterus & provides nutrients and gas & waste exchange for developing young
Have sweat glands for cooling & scent glands for attracting mates & marking territories

Mammal Ancestors:

Fossil records show mammals arose from group of reptiles called therapsids at the end of the Paleozoic era
Therapsids were endotherms with specialized teeth like mammals

Lycaenops: drawing by Steve Kirk - Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals, ed.. Barry Cox

TherapsidEarly Mammals:

First mammalian fossil found in Mesozoic era (hair, single jawbone, specialized teeth, & endothermic)
Early mammals were small, shrew like, insect eaters that had large eye sockets making them probably nocturnal
When dinosaurs became extinct, new habitats & food supplies opened up for mammals
“Age of mammals” occurred during Cenozoic era
Oviparous (egg laying) monotremes evolved first


Echidna	Platypus
Monotremes

Viviparous (live birth) marsupials with incomplete uterine development appeared next & then placental mammals


Tasmanian Devil	Armadillo
Marsupial	Placental

Section 1 Review

Specializations of the mouth & digestive system:

Single jawbone
Incisors – specialized, chisel like front teeth for biting & chewing
Canines – pointed teeth or fangs behind incisors to help grip, puncture, & tear prey
Bicuspids – teeth with two points behind the canines used to shear & shred food
Molars – flattened back teeth to grind & crush
Baleen – thin plates in the roof of the mouth of some whales that strain food from water
Microorganisms living in the gut help some mammals digest cellulose from plants
Hoofed mammals (cows, sheep, giraffes…) have a four-chambered stomach with bacteria living in the first chamber or rumen
Cud – digested food in the rumen that is regurgitated, swallowed, & then chewed again to break down plant cellulose
Caecum – stomach chamber in elephants, horses, & rabbits that contains bacteria to digest cellulose

Adaptations for Endothermy:

High demand for oxygen
Right & left sides of heart separated by septum so oxygenated & deoxygenated blood don’t mix
Left side of heart pumps blood to lungs & back (pulmonary circulation)
Right side of blood pumps oxygenated blood to body cells (systemic circulation)
Diaphragm – sheet of muscle below lungs that moves up & down in chest to change air pressure so gas moves into & out of the lungs
Alveoli or air sacs in the lungs are surrounded by capillaries and increase the surface area for the absorption of oxygen
Hair or fur and a fat layer insulates and prevents heat loss

Nervous System Adaptations:

Largest vertebrate brain
Cerebrum surface is folded to increase surface area without increasing volume
Cerebrum controls sensory organs, coordinates movement, regulates behavior, & is responsible for memory & learning
Have five major senses — vision, hearing, olfaction (smell), touch, & taste
Bats, whales, dolphins, porpoises use echolocation (bouncing off of high frequency sounds) to navigate & find prey

Reproductive Adaptations:

Each of the 3 mammal groups — monotremes, marsupials, & placentals— has a unique reproductive pattern
Monotreme females lay 1-2 leathery-shelled eggs containing yolk & incubates them with her body heat

Young monotremes are small & partially developed at hatching so depend on mother for protection and milk from mammary glands
Marsupials have short development period inside of the mother & newborns must crawl to the mother’s pouch or marsupium after birth, attach to a nipple for milk, and finish developing

photograph of kangaroo and her joey
Mother Kangaroo & “Joey”

Placentals are the largest group of mammals
Gestation (period of development inside mother) is longer in placental mammals
Nutrients, wastes, gases exchanged through membrane lining uterus called the placenta

Section 2 Review

Order Monotremata:

Oviparous
Not completely endothermic (lower body temperature & it fluctuates)
Have a cloaca where wastes, eggs, & sperm are emptied
Includes duck-billed platypus & spiny anteaters or echidna


Echidna	Platypus
Monotremes

Live only in Australia & New Zealand
Platypus:
1. Waterproof fur
2.Webbed feet
3. Flattened tail for swimming
4. Flat, sensitive, rubbery muzzle used to root for worms & crayfish
5. Digs a den in bank of river to lay eggs
6. Female curls around eggs & incubates them
7. Newborns lick milk from nippleless mammary glands
Echidnas:
1. Terrestrial
2. Coat of protective spines
3. Long snout to probe ant hills & termite nests
4. Incubate eggs in a brood pouch on female’s belly

Order Marsupialia:

Found in New Guinea, Australia, & the Americas
Dominate animal in Australia due to lack of competition from placental mammals
Known as pouched animals
Pouch called marsupium
Viviparous (live birth)
Tiny, immature young must crawl to mother’s pouch after birth
Young attach to mammary gland nipple to nurse until able to survive outside of pouch
Includes opossum, kangaroo, wombat, & koala


Koala & baby	Opossum

Placental Mammals :

Young carried in uterus & nourished by placenta
Gestation periods (time of development within uterus) varies among species
Adapted for life on land in water, and in air
Mammal species make up 95 % of all animals
At least 18 orders exist

Order Insectivora:

Includes moles, hedgehogs, & shrews
Small with high metabolic rate
Found in North America, Europe, & Asia
Have long, pointed noses to grub for insects & worms
Teeth adapted to pick up & pierce prey
Adapted to live on & under ground, in trees, and in water
Shrews feed above ground & have claws to help sweep invertebrates into their mouths
Moles live underground, have reduced eyes & no external ears, and have short limbs to dig tunnels


Mole	Shrew

Order Rodentia:

Largest mammal order (40% of all species)
Found everywhere except Antarctica
Includes squirrels, chipmunks, gophers, rats, mice, & porcupines
Have two instead of four incisors
Teeth continue to grow throughout their life
Feed on hard seeds, twigs, roots, & bark
Gnawing keeps incisors sharp
High reproductive capacity
Guinea pig & capybaras are two rodents found in South America


Chipmunk	Porcupine

Order Lagomorpha:

includes rabbits, hares, & pikas
Found worldwide
Have a double row of upper incisors & two large front teeth backed up by two smaller teeth
Continuous growing teeth
Herbivores


Pika	Hare

Order Edentata:

Includes anteaters, armadillos, & sloths
Found in North, Central, & South America
Means “without teeth”
Only anteaters are completely toothless
Armadillos & sloths have peg-like teeth without enamel
Have long sticky tongues & claws on powerful front paws to open ant hills& termite nests
Sloths are herbivores
Armadillos eat small reptiles, frogs, mollusks, & dead animals


Armadillo	Sloth

Order Chiroptera:

Only flying mammals
Includes bats found everywhere except polar regions
Front limb is modified into a wing with a skin membrane stretching from the finger bones to the hind limb
Clawed thumb, extending from top edge of wing, is used for walking, climbing, & grasping
Most are nocturnal (night active)
Use echolocation (emission of high frequency sounds that bounce off objects) to navigate and locate food
Have small eyes & large ears
Feed mainly on insects
Tropical bats don’t use echolocation, but have large eyes & keen sense of smell to find fruit to feed on & nectar

Order Cetacea:

Includes whales, dolphins, & porpoises
Most inhabit oceans, but some dolphins live in freshwater rivers
Have a fish shaped body
Forelimbs modified as flippers
No hind limbs
Broad, flat tails to propel through water
Breathe through a blowhole on top of the head
Divided into two groups — toothed whales & baleen whales
Toothed whales:
1. Includes beaked, sperm, beluga, & killer whales; narwhals; dolphins; porpoises
2. Have 1 to more than 100 teeth
3. Prey on fish, squid, seals, & other whales


Narwhal	Beluga	Orca

Baleen whales:
1. Lack teeth
2. Includes blue, grey, right & humpbacked whales
2. Have baleen or thin plates of fingernail like material that hangs from the roof of the mouth
3. Baleen strain shrimp & other invertebrates from water as food


Blue Whale	Humpbacked Whale

Order Sirenia:

Includes manatees & dugongs
Large herbivores
Inhabit tropical seas, estuaries, & rivers
Front limbs modified into flippers
No hind limbs
Flattened tail for propulsion


Manatees	Dugongs

Order Carnivora:

Found worldwide
Includes cats, dogs, raccoons, bears, hyenas, & otters
Meat eaters (carnivores) mainly
Many feed on both plants & animals (omnivores)
Have long canine teeth & strong jaws
Clawed toes for seizing & holding prey
Keen sense of sight & smell
Long limbs for running fast


Raccoons	Hyena

Order Pinnipedia:

Aquatic carnivores
Includes sea lions, seals, & walruses
Streamlined bodies adapted for swimming
Steer & propel through water using broad, flattened tail
Called pinnipeds
Return to land to feed & give birth
Spend much of their time in cold water
Large land carnivores so this helps maintain endothermy
Can remain under water for 5 minutes to an hour for some species

Order Artiodactyla:

Known as ungulates or hoofed mammals
Have an even number of toes
Includes deer, elk, bison, moose, sheep, cows, caribou, goats, pigs, & camels
Herbivores
Have large flat molars for grinding plants
Found everywhere except Antarctica
Cloven or split hooves
Fast runners (used for defense)
Have storage chamber called rumen in stomach where bacteria break down cellulose
Stored food called cud is chewed again & then swallowed to go through digestive system a second time

Order Perissodactyla:

Odd toed ungulates
Includes horses, zebras, rhinoceroses, & tapir
Most are native to Africa & Asia
Tapirs are found in Central & South America
Have a large, convoluted caecum or blind sac near the small intestine where bacteria digest cellulose


Caribou (even-toed)	Tapir (odd-toed)

Order Proboscidea:

Have a boneless trunk or proboscis
Includes the African & Asian elephant
Wooly mammoth is an extinct member of this order
Largest terrestrial mammal
Weigh more than 6 tons
Feed on plants up to 18 hours a day
Proboscis used to gather leaves from high branches & to suck water without lowering the head
Modified incisors called tusks help dig for roots & strip bark
Jagged molars up to 30 cm long grind plants
Have the longest gestation period (20 months for females & 22 months for males)
Females can continue to have calves until they are 70 years old


African Elephant	Asian Elephant

Order Primates:

Includes 2 main groups — Prosimians & Anthropoids
Most are omnivores
Have teeth suitable for a varied diet
Prosimians include lemurs, tarsiers, & lorises
Anthropoids include monkeys, apes, & humans
Anthropoids have a larger brain
Show more complex behaviors than other animals
Highly organized social groups
Gorilla is the largest primate
Have 2 forward-facing eyes for depth perception
Have grasping hands & most with grasping feet
Some have a grasping tail for life in trees
Live in a variety of habitats


Lemur	Gorilla

Section 3 Review

BACK

Lab 8 Ap Sample Population Genetics

Lab 8 Population Genetics

Introduction:
G. H. Harding and W. Weinberg both came up with the idea that evolution could be viewed as changes in the frequency of alleles in a population. They used the letter “p” to represent and “A” allele and the letter “q” to represent the “a” allele. So, in a population of 100 individuals and 40% of the alleles are “A”, then “p” is .40, “q” would equal .60. The frequency at which the alleles show up is known as their allele frequency. The frequency of the possible combinations of the alleles can be figured using this equation:

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.0

Hardy and Weinberg also came up with 5 conditions in which a population’s frequencies would remain constant from generation to generation. One of the conditions is that the population has to be large. Another condition is the mating has to be random. Another condition that is very important is that there isn’t any mutation of the alleles. Another condition is there isn’t any migration going on. The last condition is there can’t be any natural selection.
Using these methods, allele frequency and evolution can be measured in a population. Evolution is difficult to work with in a natural population, so the class will serve as a model to represent a population under different conditions.

Hypothesis:
The purpose of this lab is to learn how to measure allele frequencies in a population under certain conditions and observe evolution and natural selection take its role.

Materials:
Materials used in this lab involved: PTC tasting paper, calculators, and note cards.

Methods:
Exercise 8A: Everyone in the class needs to get a piece of PTC paper and put it into their mouths. If you can taste a bitter flavor, then you are considered a taster, if you can’t taste a bitter flavor, then you are considered a non-taster. In order to calculate the percent of tasters in the class, divide the number of tasters by the total number of students in the class. Calculate the percent of the non-tasters the same way and record the numbers into the table. To figure out the allele frequency of q, calculate the square root of the percent of non-tasters. To calculate the frequency of p, subtract the frequency of q from 1. Record your answers in the graph.

Exercise 8B CASE I: This part of the lab simulates a population breeding under the conditions of Hardy-Weinberg. The entire class will participate in this case. Each student needs to randomly pick a partner genotype or sex doesn’t matter. When the students have a partner, then they must all get 4 cards. Each card either has an “A” or an “a” written on it, the students need to be sure to get 2 cards with matching letters. When that’s all sorted out, the students will randomly pick a card out of their hand and lay it down. This simulates the alleles of the first offspring. Note whether or not the cards show a heterozygote, homozygous dominant, or homozygous recessive in a table. The student pair will repeat the procedure once more. Once each pair of students has drawn cards twice and noted the genotypes in a table, they must then assume the genotypes of their offspring. Say one genotype was Aa and another was AA, then one student will have all 4 cards being A, a, A, a and the other student will have all his/her cards be A, A, A, A. Once the exchanging has been done, the students then must rotate, randomly, to another partner. All in all, each student will rotate 5 times with different partners each time representing 5 generations of offspring. All the genotypes must be counted after then ends of each generation and put into a graph.

After the generations have been “born” and the genotypes recorded, frequencies can be calculated. To calculate “p”, multiply the total number of offspring with the genotype AA by 2. Then multiply the total number of offspring with the genotype Aa by 1. Add up the 2 values and divide that number by the total number of genotypes multiplied by 2, representing the total number of alleles in the population. To calculate “q”, multiply the total number of offspring with genotypes aa by 2 and add the total number of offspring with the genotypes Aa. Next, divide the sum of the 2 values by the total number of alleles in the population, in this case, the total number of genotypes multiplied by 2. There you have it!

CASE II: This case is exactly like CASE I except that the aa genotypes won’t be allowed. This simulates that the environment will favor some genotypes over others, in this case, aa. If the 2 students draw aa, then they must try again until they get a surviving offspring. Once the students have reached 5 generations, calculate the frequencies for p and q. Remember to record the genotypes after each generation.

CASE III: This case simulates sickle-cell anemia in human genomes. Just like in CASE II, the homozygous recessive, aa, alleles never survive. Individuals that are heterozygous to the disease are slightly more resistant than individuals who are homozygous dominant. With this in mind, if the pair draws up AA, then they must flip a coin to see whether or not the offspring will survive or not, heads survives, tails dies. The student pair must always try to get 2 offspring, no matter how long it takes. Remember to record the genotypes after each generation. Once everything is finished, calculate the frequencies for p and q.

CASE IV: The case is just like CASE I except after each generation is produced, there will be no random selection of new mates. The purpose of this case is to simulate isolated populations and genetic drift. Each group must no interact in any way in order to represent isolated populations. Record the genotypes after each generation and calculate the frequencies for p and q as usual.

Results:
Exercise 8A:

		Phenotypes				Allele Frequency Based on the H-W Equation
		Tasters (p2 + 2pq)		Non-tasters (q2)		P	q

Class Population		#	%	#	%	.53	.47
	7	77.78	2	22.22
North American Population		0.55		0.45		.329	.671

1. What is the percentage of heterozygous tasters (2pq) in your class? 49.82%

2. What percentage of the North American population is heterozygous for the taster trait? 44.15%

Exercise 8B CASE I:

	AA	Aa	aa
F1	1	5	2
F2	2	4	2
F3	1	6	1
F4	1	5	2
F5	1	5	2
Total	6	25	9

Frequencies:
P= .46

Q= .54

AA=.21 Aa=.50 aa=.29

1. What does the Hardy-Weinberg equation predict for the new p and q? That the frequency of AA alleles is 46% while the frequency of the aa alleles is 54%.

2. Do the results you obtained in this simulation agree? If not, why not? The results that I obtained agree because it’s normal for the heterzygotes to be large in number because they can carry on both alleles.

3. What major assumption(s) were not strictly followed in this simulation? All of the factors in the environment that could change the results.

CASE II:

	AA	Aa	aa
F1	2	6	0
F2	6	2	0
F3	5	3	0
F4	5	3	0
F5	4	4	0
Total	22	18	0

Frequencies:

P= .78

Q= .23

AA=.61 Aa=.36 aa=.05

1. How do the new frequencies of p and q compare to the initial frequencies in Case I? Well, p has gone up a lot and q has gone down a lot.

2. How has the allelic frequency of the population changed? It has gotten smaller.

3. Predict what would happen to the frequencies of p and q if you simulated another five generations. The p value would continue to increase, and the q value would decrease.

4. In a large population, would it be possible to completely eliminate a deleterious recessive allele? Explain. No because if the recessive alleles are being carried on by the heterozygous alleles, then they can’t be eliminated.

CASE III:

	AA	Aa	aa
F1	3	5	0
F2	1	7	0
F3	2	6	0
F4	2	6	0
F5	4	4	0
Total	12	28	0

Frequencies:

P= .65

Q= .35

AA=.42 Aa=.46 aa=.12

1. Explain how the changes in p and q frequencies in Case II compare with Case I and Case III. The changes in Case II astounded the results in Case I, but in Case III, the results are similar because the aa genotype is wiped out.

2. Do you think the recessive allele will be completely eliminated in either Case II or Case III? No because if the recessive alleles are being carried on by the heterozygous alleles, then they can’t be eliminated.

3. What is the importance of heterozygotes in maintaining genetic variation in populations? They contain both the dominant and the recessive allele, which make a variation right off the bat.

CASE IV:

	AA	Aa	aa
F5	7	18	15

Frequencies:

P=.40

Q=.60

AA=.16 Aa= .48 aa=.36

1. What do your results indicate about the importance of population size as an evolutionary force? When a population is very large, there is more diversity. When there is a small population with only a couple of offspring reproducing at each generation, and then eventually, there will be no diversity at all.

Error Analysis:
Not many things could have affected the results to this lab unless someone didn’t compute the correct information into their calculators.

Conclusions:
Based on this lab, I can conclude that allelic frequencies appear normal in a perfect environment like Case I. In the rest of the cases however, as we related more to the real world, changes occurred in the frequencies. In Case II the homozygous dominant alleles became the dominant genotype when the aa genotype died because as the recessive alleles became scarcer, the heterozygous alleles also suffered because they are half recessive. In Case III, the heterozygotes being more resistant to sickle-cell had an affect on the results, they were dominant. In Case IV, evidence of the populations becoming fixed is showing as the dominant AA alleles slowly disappear.

BACK

Lab Safety PPT Questions

Lab Safety
ppt Questions

General Safety Rules

1. What should you do before starting any lab?

2. How should you protect your eyes?

3. What is the first thing you should do if there is an accident in the lab?

4. After using any chemical always remember to do what?

5. Why should you keep your hands away from your face during lab?

6. What should be done with long hair or loose sleeves before starting lab?

7. Tell the location of:

a. fire extinguisher?

b. eyewash?

c. emergency exits?

d. first aid kit?

8. What should be at your lab station or table?

9. If you wear contacts, what safety precaution should you take during lab?

10. Should you ever put anything into your mouth during lab?

11. What should you always do at the end of a lab?

12. What is the penalty for horsing around or playing jokes during lab?

Glassware Safety

13. What should be done with chipped or cracked glassware?

14. What should be done with glassware that is broken during lab?

15. What glassware safety rule should be followed when pouring liquids into glass containers?

16. What can be done to prevent splattering when pouring liquids into glassware?

17. If glassware gets broken, what do you do first?

18. Explain how to insert glass tubing into a rubber stopper.

19. What should be done with hot glassware before cleaning it?

Chemical Safety

20. Describe the protective attire you should wear when pouring or heating hazardous chemicals.

21. When is the only time you should mix chemicals?

22. Should chemicals ever be tasted in the lab?

23. How should smell the odor of a chemical to help identify it?

24. What could happen if you inhaled dangerous fumes?

25. How should acid & water be mixed?

26. How do you dispose of chemicals?

27. After handling chemicals, what should you remember to do?

Electrical Safety

28. What should be done with electrical cords?

29. Check you hands and lab area for what before using anything electrical?

30. What is the only thing that should be placed in electrical outlets?

31.Explain how to unplug an electrical cord.

32. At the end of the lab, make sure all electrical equipment is turned ______.

Heating Safety

33. What safety steps should be followed when using burners & hotplates?

34. What should be used to remove heated objects?

35. If there is an open flame, what should you be careful that you do not do?

36. What is the only safe glassware to heat?

37. Explain what should be done when heating test tubes?

38. If there is moisture in the test tube, should it be heated?

39. Explain how to heat a glass beaker when a ring stand is used?

40. Explain how to light a burner.

41. How do you regulate the temperature & color of a flame?

42. What color flame would be hotter, a blue or yellow-orange flame?

43. Once a burner or hotplate is in use, what should you be sure to do?

First Aid

44. Explain the first aid procedure that should be followed for each of these types of injuries:

a. burns?

b. cuts or bruises?

c. fainting?

d. eye injury?

e. poisoning?

f. spills on the skin?

g. electrical shock?

Click HERE for Notebook Copy

Lab Safety/Safety Contract

LAB SAFETY
C. Massengale

An important part of your biology work will take place in the laboratory. The lab is a safe environment in which to work if some general rules are observed and if the people who work in the lab are informed and careful. THESE GUIDELINES ARE SPECIFICALLY FOR BIOLOGY.

Read the following safety rules to make sure that you understand each rule. Ask your teacher about the rules that are unclear to you. When you are sure that you understand all of the safety rules, sign and date the contract in the space provided. Signing the contract indicates that you are aware of the rules of the laboratory.

You will be allowed to work in the lab only after you have signed this contract, had your parent sign the contract, made a MAP OF THE ROOM INDICATING SAFETY EQUIPMENT AND EMERGENCY EXITS, and have PASSED A SAFETY TEST.

GENERAL GUIDELINES

1. Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all times in the laboratory.

2. FOLLOW ALL WRITTEN AND VERBAL INSTRUCTIONS carefully. If you do not understand a direction or part of a procedure, ask the instructor before proceeding.

3. Never work alone. No student may work in the laboratory without an instructor present.

4. When first entering a science room, do not touch any equipment, chemicals, or other materials in the laboratory area until you are instructed to do so.

5. DO NOT EAT FOOD OR DRINK beverages in the laboratory. Do not use laboratory glassware as containers for food or beverages.

6. PERFORM ONLY THOSE EXPERIMENTS AUTHORIZED.

7. Be prepared for your work in the laboratory. Read all procedures thoroughly before starting the laboratory experiment.

8. Never fool around in the laboratory. Horseplay, practical jokes, and pranks are dangerous and prohibited.

9. OBSERVE GOOD HOUSEKEEPING PRACTICES. Work areas should be kept clean and tidy at all times. Bring only your laboratory instructions, worksheets, and/or reports to the work area. Other materials (books, purses, backpacks, etc.) should be stored under your chairs or in the classroom area.

10. Keep aisles clear. Push your chair under the desk or table.

11. Know the locations and operating procedures of all safety equipment including the first aid kit, eyewash station, safety shower, fire extinguisher, and fire blanket. Know where the fire alarm and the exits are located.

12. Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in the laboratory. Notify the instructor immediately of any unsafe conditions you observe.

13. Dispose of all chemical waste properly. Never mix chemicals in sink drains. Sinks are to be used only for water and those solutions designated by the instructor. Solid chemicals, metals, matches, filter paper, and all other insoluble materials are to be disposed of in the proper waste containers, not in the sink.

14. Labels and equipment instructions must be read carefully before use. Set up and use prescribed apparatus as directed in the laboratory instructions or by your instructor.

15. KEEP HANDS AWAY FROM FACE, eyes, mouth, and body while using chemicals or preserved specimens. Wash your hands with soap and water after performing all experiments. Clean all work surfaces and apparatus at the end of the experiment. Return all equipment clean and in working order to the proper storage area.

16. Experiments must be personally monitored at all times. You will be assigned a laboratory station at which to work. Do not wander around the room, distract other students, or interfere with the laboratory experiments of others.

17. Students are never permitted in the science storage areas or preparation areas unless given permission by the instructor.

18. Know what to do if there is a fire drill during a laboratory period; containers must be closed, gas valves turned off, and any electrical equipment turned off.

19. Handle all living organisms used in a laboratory activity in a humane manner.

20. When using knives and other sharp instruments, always carry with the tips and points pointing down and away. Always cut away from your body. Never try to catch falling sharp instruments. Grasp sharp instruments only by the handles.

21. If you have a medical condition (e.g., allergies, pregnancy, etc.), check with your physician prior to working in lab.

DRESS CODE

22. To protect your eyes from possible injury, ALWAYS WEAR SAFETY GOGGLES when working with heat, chemicals or glassware (except microscope work). Your grade will suffer if you aren’t wearing safety goggles. Wear glasses rather than contact lenses unless you have permission from the instructor. Goggles will fit over glasses.

23. TIE BACK long hair and loose clothing and REMOVE JEWELRY when you work at the lab station. ROLL UP LOOSE SLEEVES that might fall into chemicals or become caught on equipment.

24. Do not wear open-toed shoes or sandals in the lab when using glassware or chemicals. Never go barefoot.

PREPARATION FOR LAB WORK

25. Prepare for the experiment by READING ALL OF THE DIRECTIONS BEFORE YOU START THE LAB. Be sure you understand all directions. Discuss the procedures with your lab partner or team. Assign specific tasks to individuals, especially if time is a factor in the procedure.

26. Before you begin work, make sure that you know how to operate the equipment that will be used in the experiment.

PERFORMING AN EXPERIMENT

27. KEEP YOUR LAB WORK AREA CLEAR OF ANY MATERIALS that are not needed for performing the experiment. Texts, notebooks, bookbags, sweaters and other materials should be stored away from the work area. Push in chairs when not in use and as you leave the lab area.

28. Handle all equipment as directed. Note safety precautions in the instructions for your experiments.

29. Handle all sharp instruments with extreme care. Remember that they are considered weapons if they go out of the room or are handled in an inappropriate manner. Never try to catch falling sharp instruments. “Dueling” with probes will net an automatic “0” on a lab and a call home.

30. Do not stir solutions with a thermometer; use a glass stirring rod. If a thermometer breaks, inform your teacher at once, and your teacher will clean it up. Do not touch the mercury from broken mercury thermometers.

31. Take extreme care not to spill materials in the lab. Report all spills immediately, and follow your teacher’s directions for cleaning them up. Keep your lab area neat and clean.

32. Never use an open flame in Biology lab. Use tongs or a clamp to pick up hot containers. Test the temperatures of equipment and containers that have been heated by placing the back of your hand near any object before picking it up. If you can feel heat, the object might be too hot to handle.

33. Dispose of materials only as directed. Do not pour chemicals or other solids into a sink or put specimens or their parts into the trash or sink.

34. After you have completed your work, turn off all equipment and clean your work area. Return all equipment and materials to the place that you got them. Report any broken or missing equipment.

35. Keep hands away from your face, eyes, mouth and body while using chemicals or preserved specimens. Wash your hands before and after each experiment.

36. Never eat, drink, or chew gum in the lab. Never eat or drink from lab equipment.

37. Perform only those experiments authorized by your teacher. Never do an experiment that is not called for in the laboratory procedures or your instructor.

38. Do not work alone in the lab. When entering the room, do not touch any equipment, chemicals or other materials in the laboratory area until you are instructed to do so.

39. Experiments must be personally monitored at all times. You will be assigned a laboratory station at which to work. Do not wander around the room, distract other students, or interfere with the laboratory experiments of others.

FIRST AID or EMERGENCIES

40. REPORT ANY ACCIDENT TO YOUR TEACHER IMMEDIATELY, no matter how minor the accident might seem. Follow your teacher’s recommendations for further treatment.

41. IF YOU OR YOUR LAB PARTNER ARE HURT, IMMEDIATELY YELL OUT “CODE ONE, CODE ONE” TO GET THE INSTRUCTOR’S ATTENTION

42. Report all fires to your teacher at once, and leave the room after turning off electrical equipment. Do not try to put out a fire by yourself. If a person’s clothing or hair is on fire, smother the fire with a nonflammable object or use the water faucets.

43. Know the locations of the fire extinguisher, eyewash, first aid kit, and other safety equipment. Learn how to use each item.

44. Know the shortest exit route from the lab, from the corridor, and from the building.

45. Rinse off any chemical spill with lots of water and be sure to tell the teacher.

HANDLING CHEMICALS

46. READ THE LABELS on chemical containers twice. Many chemicals look alike. Label and date all containers into which you put materials. (This is very important!!)

47. Do not touch, taste, or smell chemicals unless directed to by your teacher. Waft fumes toward your nose by waving your hand over the mouth of the container if directed to smell a chemical.

48. To avoid the contamination of chemicals, take only what you need, and DO NOT RETURN UNUSED CHEMICALS TO THE BOTTLE. Dispose of chemicals only as directed by your teacher.

49. Always pour ACID INTO WATER; never pour water into acid.

50. Do not use your mouth to draw liquids into a pipette; use a pipette bulb.

51. Never point the open end of a heated test tube toward yourself or anyone else.

52. Never dispense flammable liquids anywhere near an open flame or source of heat.

53. Never remove chemicals or other materials from the laboratory area.

54. Take great care when transporting acids and other chemicals from one part of the laboratory to another. Hold them securely and walk carefully.

HANDLING GLASSWARE

55. Do not use cracked, chipped, scored, or badly scratched glassware.

56. Never handle broken glass with your bare hands. Tell your teacher, and let your teacher clean up broken glass.

57. Allow plenty of time for hot glass to cool before touching it. It shows no visible signs of its temperature, and can cause painful burns.

58. Learn the names of the equipment and glassware you use so there is no misunderstanding.

HANDLING LIVING ORGANISMS

59. Treat all microorganisms as if they were harmful. Use antiseptic procedures, as directed by your teacher, when working with microbes. Dispose of microbes as your teacher directs.

60. Treat living organisms carefully. Do not cause pain, discomfort, or injury to an organism. Follow your teacher’s directions when handling animals. Wash your hands thoroughly after handling animals or their cages.

DISSECTIONS

61. Place the dissection specimens in the pan. Do not dissect a handheld specimen. Treat specimens respectfully.

62. Use dissection tools as directed. Use the right tool for the job.

63. Pin specimens before cutting (do not hold) and then cut away from yourself.

64. Dispose of specimen as directed by the teacher & rinse and dry all dissecting equipment.

ELECTRICAL SAFETY

65. Make sure your hands and area are dry and that plugs, cords, & outlets are in good condition.

66. Make sure electrical cords do not hang off the lab counter.

GENERAL MOVEMENT

67. Move from area to area carefully. Do not make sudden moves. Other students may be endangered.

68. No horseplay. (Yes, shoving is horseplay.)

69. No practical jokes or pranks.

CLICK HERE FOR BIOLOGY SAFETY CONTRACT
CLICK HERE FOR NOTEBOOK COPY OF SAFETY RULES

Leaf Collection Instructions

Materials Needed	Leaf Press	Getting Started
Collecting	Labeling	Mounting/cover
	Required Leaves

Arkansas is essentially a forest state because more than half of the state is covered with trees. The climate and soils of Arkansas also support a great variety of trees, both conifers and deciduous. Trees are one of Arkansas’ most important crops. Forests are also valuable in preventing erosion, in offering parks and recreational areas, and in providing homes for wildlife. In addition, many trees have been introduced into the state as ornamentals.

Leaf collecting is a good way to learn the trees native to your area. Collecting leaves will also help you to learn leaf margins, shapes, and venations and how to use different taxonomic keys to identify trees.

Materials needed:

leaf press
black ink pen
pencil
small notebook
scissors
Elmer’s glue
art paper, poster board, etc. for mounting
labels
taxonomic keys (Trees of Arkansas published by the Arkansas Forestry Commission)

Top

Directions for making a leaf press:
1. Cut 15 – 20 pieces of corrugated cardboard 30 cm by 50 cm in size.
2. Cut several sheets of newspaper the same size as the cardboard.
3. Lay 10 or 12 sheets of newspaper between each cardboard layer sandwich style. These sheets will need to be changed every couple of days as they absorb moisture from your leaves; therefore, cut extra sheets.
4. Use one, preferably two, stretch belts to bind the press together.
5. Leave the press in an area so that air can circulate & more quickly dry the leaves.

Top

Getting started with your collection:
1. Study the shapes, margins, venations, tips, bases, etc. in your Trees of Arkansas book.

Click here to view reference page

2. Learn to distinguish simple leaves from compound leaves and conifers from deciduous trees.
3. Learn to distinguish a tree from a shrub.
4. Gather your collecting materials together – press, pencil, scissors, & small notebook.
6. Always get permission before collecting leaves on someone else’s property.
7. Be sure to collect at least two of each type of leaf so both the bottom & top side of the leaf can be shown in your collection.
8. Place leaves in your press immediately after collecting them so they do not start to dry out and wrinkle.
9. Record the name of each leaf, date collected, and place collected in your notebook as you collect. Also record tree characteristics such as shape of the crown, color and type of bark, etc.

Top

Collecting:
1. Remember to collect two of every type of leaf!
2. Carefully remove an entire leaf, not a leaflet, from the tree, and place this in your press between newspaper layers.
3. If leaves are damaged or torn, don’t use them because you will not receive credit.
4. Make sure that none of the leaf parts extend beyond the edge of the press.
5. You may also collect &press seeds and/or fruits from some trees if they fit in your press.
6. Leave the leaf in the press for 3 – 5 days depending on its thickness and moisture content. Remember to change the newspaper when needed.
7. Keep the press in an area where air is circulating (in front of a fan).

Top

Labeling and identifying:
1. Obtain printed labels from your teacher.
2. Use only black ink to write labels, & do not mark out or white out mistakes on the labels; rewrite them.
3. Use taxonomic keys to identify each leaf, and include both the scientific & common name of the tree on the label.
4. Determine the shape, margin, tip, base, and venation of your leaf and whether it is a simple or compound leaf; record this on your label.
5. Use you key to give a description of the tree, not the leaf.
6. Research uses for the tree, its fruit, etc. and record on your label.
7. Tell if the leaf is deciduous or coniferous.

Top

Mounting leaves:
1. Use pieces of cut poster board or art paper to mount your leaves. Make sure all sheets are uniform in size! (The size of your sheets will be determined by your largest leaf.)
2. Use Elmer’s glue to adhere two leaves to each page — one showing the upper surface of the leaf and the other showing the underside of the leaf.
3. Each page should have only one type of leaf on it.
4. Arrange the leaves so they do not overlap each other and so there is room to glue the label in the lower right hand corner. The leaves should look nice on the page.
5. On compound leaves, mount the topside of the complete leaf and then mount the underside of a single leaflet. Make sure the leaflet comes from another leaf to receive credit!
6. Use a small amount of Elmer’s glue to adhere the completed label in the lower right hand corner of the page.
7. LET THE PAGES DRY COMPLETELY BEFORE ASSEMBLING THEM TOGETHER IN YOUR COLLECTION OR THE PAGES WILL STICK TOGETHER!!!!!
8. Once the pages are dry, lay them in the correct order (see your list of required leaves), and then number the pages in the lower right corner with black ink.
9. Make a stiff front and back cover for your collection from poster board, cardboard, wood, etc. Include the following items on your cover:

title (Tree Identification Through Leaves)
your complete name
date collection turned into teacher
class period
subject
teacher’s name

10. Use ribbon, string, etc. to bind the pages together or assemble the collection in a scrapbook. DO NOT COVER THE LEAVES WITH PLASTIC!!!

Top

Required leaves:
1. Only native, Arkansas trees may be used. Refer to your Trees of Arkansas book.
2. Leaves must be in perfect condition without damage or tears.
3. No more then 4 oaks are allowed in the collection.
4. No fruit trees such as apple, pear, orange, peach, etc. are allowed.
5. Place the following leaves in your collection first and in this order:

sweet gum
American sycamore
pine (any type)
flowering dogwood
redbud
ash (any type)
persimmon
Eastern red cedar
red or silver maple
hickory (any type)
pecan
pin oak
willow oak
water oak
elm (any type)

6. The remaining leaves that you include must be trees native to Arkansas!

Top

*Pre AP Biology is required to collect 30 leaves including the 15 required.

*Biology I is required to collect 20 leaves including the 15 required.

Pre AP

Biology I