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Category: My Classroom Material
Chapter 15 – Chromosomal Basis of Heredity Objectives
| Chapter 15 Chromosomal Basis of Heredity | |
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| Relating Mendelian Inheritance to the Behavior of Chromosomes 1. Explain how the observations of cytologists and geneticists provided the basis for the chromosome theory of inheritance. 2. Explain why Drosophila melanogaster is a good experimental organism for genetic studies. 3. Explain why linked genes do not assort independently. 4. Distinguish between parental and recombinant phenotypes. 5. Explain how crossing over can unlink genes. 6. Explain how Sturtevant created linkage maps. 7. Define a map unit. 8. Explain why Mendel did not find linkage between seed color and flower color, despite the fact that these genes are on the same chromosome. 9. Explain how genetic maps are constructed for genes located far apart on a chromosome. 10. Explain the effect of multiple crossovers between loci. 11. Explain what additional information cytogenetic maps provide. Sex Chromosomes 12. Describe how sex is genetically determined in humans and explain the significance of the SRY gene. 13. Distinguish between linked genes and sex-linked genes. 14. Explain why sex-linked diseases are more common in human males. 15. Describe the inheritance patterns and symptoms of color blindness, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and hemophilia. 16. Describe the process of X inactivation in female mammals. Explain how this phenomenon produces the tortoiseshell coloration in cats. Errors and Exceptions in Chromosomal Inheritance 17. Explain how nondisjunction can lead to aneuploidy. 18. Define trisomy, triploidy, and polyploidy. Explain how these major chromosomal changes occur and describe possible consequences. 19. Distinguish among deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. 20. Describe the type of chromosomal alterations responsible for the following human disorders: Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, extra Y, triple-X syndrome, Turner syndrome, cri du chat syndrome, and chronic myelogenous leukemia. 21. Define genomic imprinting. Describe the evidence that suggests that the Igf2 gene is maternally imprinted. 22. Explain why extranuclear genes are not inherited in a Mendelian fashion. |
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Chapter 3: Biochemistry PowerPoint Worksheet
Chapter 3 Biochemistry of Cells PowerPoint Notes
1. What is the most abundant organic compound on Earth?
2. Approximately how much water makes up the cells of organisms?
3. ___________ is known as the universal solvent.
4. List 4 properties of water that make it so useful to organisms.
5. Besides water, what other substance makes up most of the cell?
6. ____________ chemistry is the study of carbon compounds.
7. Carbon has _______ outer electrons so it can form ___________ bonds by sharing these electrons.
8. Carbon & hydrogen make up compounds called ________________.
9. Sketch a simple hydrocarbon with the formula CH4.
10. Carbon skeletons may be straight _______________, _____________ chains, or ______________ structures.
11. Hydrocarbons in ____________ supply our bodies with energy.
12. The _______ of an organic molecule determines its function.
13. ____________ groups give different properties to the organic compound to which they attach.
14. Write the formula for the following functional groups:
a. Hydroxyl
b. Carbonyl
c. Carboxyl
d. Amino
15. Give examples of organic compounds that contain each of the functional groups from question 14.
16. Large organic molecules are called _______________.
17. Polymers are built from smaller subunits called _____________.
18. Biologists call polymers _____________________.
19. Name 4 examples of polymers found in living things.
20. Monomers linked together are called ____________.
21. The process of linking monomers together is called _______________________.
22. Dehydration synthesis links small molecules or monomers together by removing molecules of _____________.
23. Name the process used to break down large polymers into smaller monomers.
24. Hydrolysis involves ____________ a molecule of water in order to break bonds.
25. Name some foods that contain lots of carbohydrates.
26. _________________ are simple sugars.
27. Name 3 monosaccharides & give their chemical formula.
28. Monosaccharides are called hexose sugars because they contain 6 _______________.
29. __________ is the simple sugar made by plants, ___________ is the sugar found in fruits, while _______________ is known as “milk sugar”. Sugars have an __________ ending.
30. What are isomers?
31. Name 2 isomers.
32. What does aqueous mean?
33. What happens to simple sugars, monosaccharides, when they are put into aqueous solutions inside cells?
34. ___________________ serve as fuel for cells. Saccharide means ________________.
35. What is a double sugar called?
36. How are disaccharides formed? Name the BOND that joins them together.
37. Name 3 disaccharides.
38. Name the simple sugars that make up each of these disaccharides:
a. Sucrose
b. Maltose
c. Lactose
39. Complex carbohydrates are called ________________ & are made of chains of ________________________.
40. Name 3 examples of polysaccharides and tell the shape of each.
41. Plants store carbohydrate energy as ____________.
42. Name some starchy foods.
43. Animals store their carbohydrate energy as __________________.
44. Both starch & glycogen are made of monomers of ____________ or glucose.
45. Describe cellulose fibers & tell where in plants it is found.
46. Cellulose makes up __________ in plants and serves as dietary __________ in animals.
47. How are cows able to digest cellulose?
48. Since sugars dissolve in water, they are said to be _____________ or water-loving. What functional group makes them water soluble?
49. Lipids are hydrophobic. What does this mean?
50. Name 4 examples of lipids and then give 3 functions for lipids in the body.
Examples:
a.
b.
c.
51. If the bonds between carbons in a fatty acid are all single bonds, the fatty acid is ___________________. Sketch a saturated fatty acid.
52. If there is a double bond between carbons in a fatty acid, the fatty acid is ___________________. Sketch an unsaturated fatty acid.
53. _______________ are the monomers that make up lipids or fats.
54. Triglycerides are made of an alcohol called ____________ and 3 ___________ acid chains.
55. ___________ forms the backbone of the fat. Sketch glycerol.
56. Saturated fatty acids are ___________ at room temperature and include __________,
margarine, and _____________.
57. Unsaturated fats in plants exist as ________ or oils at room temperature.
58. (a) What process links the 3 fatty acid chains to the glycerol in lipids?
(b) What lipids are in cell membranes?
(c) Sketch and label a phospholipid.
(d) Phospholipid heads are _____________ and attract water, while the 2 tails are _________ and repel water.
59. Lipids called _____________ are made of four, fused rings of carbon.
60. Name 3 steroids found in organisms.
a.
b.
c.
61. Proteins are polymers made of monomers called ___________________.
62. How many different amino acids are there?
63. Give 3 jobs for proteins in cells.
a.
b.
c.
64. What four things are bonded to the central carbon of every amino acid?
65. Sketch the structure of an amino acid & label the attached groups.
66. Amino acids are linked together by ____________ synthesis and held together by _____________ bonds.
67. Many proteins act as __________ or biological catalysts.
68. Cells have _____________ of enzymes which may ___________ chemical bonds and ____________ the amount of activation energy needed for the reaction to occur.
69. Enzymes have what shape?
70. Substrates attach to an enzyme at its ___________ site. When a substrate attaches to the active site the active site changes ________________. This is called ______________ fit.
71. Can enzymes be reused?
72. The linear sequence of amino acids (chain) is the ____________ structure of a protein.
73. Protein chains are called __________________.
74. Secondary protein structures occur when proteins ___________ or ___________.
75. When polypeptides join together, the _________ groups interact with each other forming the ___________ structure of a protein forms.
76. Proteins take on a _____________ shape in the watery environment inside a cell. This is known as their _______________________ structure. Protein shape is also known as protein _____________________.
77. Denaturing a protein involves changing its __________ so it no longer works.
78. Name 2 things that denature proteins.
79. (a) What causes sickle cell anemia (disease)?
(b) What is the function of the protein hemoglobin in red blood cells?
(c) What protein controls blood sugar level?
(d) Insulin causes excess sugar to be stored in the _____________ as ________________.
(e) Proteins in the cell membrane that help cells recognize similar cells are called __________ proteins.
80. ___________ acids store hereditary information for making all of the body’s ______________.
81. Name the 2 types of nucleic acids.
82. What are the monomers for nucleic acids? Sketch a nucleotide.
83. Name the 4 bases on DNA.
84. What 2 things make up the sides of DNA?
85. DNA is ___________ stranded & coiled to make a shape called the double ____________.
86. RNA has __________ sugar instead of DEOXYRIBOSE sugar on DNA
87. RNA is a _____________ stranded molecule unlike double stranded DNA.
88. On RNA, the base ______________ replaces thymine.
89. _____________ is the cell’s energy molecule.
90. What is the monomer for ATP?
91. What does ATP stand for?
92. How is the nucleotide monomer for ATP DIFFERENT from the nucleotide monomer for nucleic acids?
93. Where is the energy stored in ATP?
94. Which bonds are considered HIGH ENERGY bonds in ATP?
95. When the last phosphate bond is broken, what is released?
96. what is the energy of ATP used for?
97. Besides energy, what two other things are formed when the last phospheta bond of ATP is broken?
98. How can ATP be reformed?
Chapter 16 – Molecular Basis of Inheritance
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Introduction Notes
Introduction
All Materials © Cmassengale
Study of Life
- First life forms arose on Earth more than 3.5 billion years ago
- Single-celled, microscopic organisms (living thing) appeared first & floated alone in seas
- Over 40 million species (types of organisms) exist with only about 2 million identified
- Many organisms are unidentified & new species are still discovered
- Biology is the study of all living things and how they interact with each other & their environment
- Over long periods of time, species changed or evolved so that new species arose from earlier organisms & came to inhabit almost every part of the earth (bacteria living in thermal vents, parasites living inside another organism, etc.)
- Organisms must adapt to their specific environment to survive & reproduce
Unifying Themes of Biology
The six unifying themes include:
- Cell Structure & Function
- Stability & Homeostasis
- Reproduction & Inheritance
- Evolution
- Interdependence of Organisms
- Matter, Energy, & Organization
Cell Structure & Function
- Cell is the basic unit of structure & function
- All organisms are made of one or more cells; Unicellular (one celled) or Multicellular (Composed of more than one cell)
UNICELLULAR AMOEBA
- Cells are small but highly organized; they contain specialized structures that carry out the jobs of a cell called organelles
CELLULAR ORGANELLES
- There are many different kinds of cells, but all cells have similarities
- All cells are surrounded by a cell membrane, contain cytoplasm, and have DNA (the genetic information for making new cells or cell structures)
- New cells made by unicellular organisms are identical (clones) to the parent cell that produced them – asexual reproduction
- Multicellular organisms begin life as one fertilized cell (sexual reproduction), but the cells multiplied and underwent differentiation (changed structure & function) to become many different kinds of cells
Stability & Homeostasis
- All organisms maintain stable internal conditions such as body temperature & water content
- Stable level of internal conditions called homeostasis
Reproduction & Inheritance
- All organisms reproduce new organisms like themselves by transmitting hereditary material to their offspring
- DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is a large molecule containing the hereditary material of the cell
DNA MODEL
- In unicellular organisms like bacteria, DNA exists as a single loop or chromosome in the cytoplasm
BACTERIA
- In multicellular organisms, DNA is enclosed in a membrane known as the nucleus
- Genes are short segments of DNA the carry the instructions for a single trait of an organism
- DNA of a cell contains all of the genes (instructions) it will ever need
- All body cells have a complete set of DNA (genome), but different types of cells use certain genes from the set; example: Muscle cells have the genes to make thyroxine, but they don’t use these genes
- In sexual reproduction, an egg (ovum) is fertilized by a sperm to form a zygote so the new organism is made of cells with hereditary information from both parents
- In asexual reproduction, cells copy their DNA & split so all new cells are identical
Evolution
- Populations of organisms change over time or evolve (Theory of Evolution)
DARWIN – THEORY OF EVOLUTION
- Natural selection or “survival of the fittest” is the process that drives evolution
- Organisms with favorable traits are better able to survive & reproduce
- The survival of organisms with favorable traits causes a gradual change in populations of organisms over many generations
- Evolution by natural selection is driven by competition for resources such as food, habitat, mates
Interdependence of Organisms
- Ecology is the study of the interaction of organisms with each other and their environment
- Sunlight is the ultimate energy for all organisms
- Energy from the sun is passed from one organism to another; producers (plants) to herbivore (plant eater) to carnivore (meat eater) to decomposers (break down dead organisms)
ENERGY FLOW IN A FOOD CHAIN
- Abiotic (nonliving factors) such as air, water, energy, soil, temperature, & minerals are also needed for survival
- Biotic factors include all living things on earth (plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms)
- Biosphere supports life & includes the biotic (all organisms) & the abiotic (all nonliving factors) on earth
- Organisms respond to their environment by:
* Fleeing
* Adapting
* Dying - Most organisms can survive a temporary change, but permanent change can lead to extinction (dinosaurs)
- Thousands of species are listed endangered (population so small could become extinct)
- Human interference is the main cause for endangerment & extinction
* Pollution of land, air, and water
*Hunting for sport, food, and commercial products also threatens the survival of many organisms
* Clear-cutting rain forests
* Diverting rivers & lakes
* Draining wetlands (everglades)
*Global Warming - Endangered organisms can be protected & returned to larger population size (American Bison almost wiped out –60 million to 250 in 90 years- now several thousand herds)
AMERICAN BISON
- Species is a group of organisms so similar to one another that they can interbreed & produce fertile offspring
- Extinction of any species upsets the balance of nature (Almost extinct Pacific Yew tree found to contain chemical used to treat cancer)
PACIFIC YEW TREE
Matter, Energy, & Organization
- Organisms are highly organized, maintain internal order, & require a constant energy supply
- Plants & unicellular organisms with chlorophyll capture sunlight through photosynthesis & store it in food to be used by other organisms
- Autotrophs or producers use sunlight, water, & carbon dioxide to make glucose (energy rich sugar) & oxygen – photosynthesis
- Heterotrophs (consumers) feed on producers or other consumers to get energy & release carbon dioxide
Biology affects life in many ways
- Biotechnology uses organisms to make products needed by people (human insulin made by bacteria)
- Fossils fuels (coal, oil, & natural gas) provide energy & materials such as nylon & polyester
OIL DRILLING
- Animal products such as wool, silk, and leather make clothing
- Wood provides energy & shelter for us, but endangers other animals (spotted owl) when forests are cut
- New medicines, better water treatment & garbage disposal improves our health
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