My Classroom Material 181 - BIOLOGY JUNCTION

Biotechnology Notes Bi

DNA Technology
All Materials © Cmassengale

Introduction:

Biotechnology refers to technology used to manipulate DNA
The procedures are often referred to as genetic engineering
DNA is the genetic material of all living organisms
All organisms use the same genetic code
Genes from one kind of organism can be transcribed and translated when put into another kind of organism
For example, human and other genes are routinely put into bacteria in order to synthesize products for medical treatment and commercial use
Human insulin, human growth hormone, and vaccines are produced by bacteria
Recombinant DNA refers to DNA from two different source
Individuals that receive genes from other species are transgenic

Viruses & their Structure:

Viruses contain genetic material but are not living
Host cells are required for their reproduction
Viruses are composed of an inner nucleic acid core (genetic material) and an outer protein coat (capsid)
Viruses that infect animals have an outer envelope (membrane) that is derived from the cell membrane of the host cell may surround the capsid
The genetic material in some viruses is DNA; in others it is RNA

Viral Reproduction:

When viral genetic material enters a cell, it is replicated, transcribed (mRNA is produced) and translated (proteins are produced from the mRNA) by the host cell
By this process, the host cell uses the genetic instructions in the virus to make more viruses

Viral DNA ® mRNA ® protein

If the viral genetic material is RNA, a DNA copy must first be made before transcription and translation can occur
The DNA copy of the viral RNA is called cDNA.

viral RNA ® cDNA ® mRNA ® protein

Bacteriophages:

Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria
Not surrounded by a membrane as the animal-infecting viruses
Virus attaches to the bacteria cell, a viral enzyme digests away a part of the wall, and its viral DNA enters the host cell
Inside the host cell, the viral DNA is transcribed, translated, and replicated
Translation produces protein coats and the enzymes needed in the construction of new virus particles
Viral DNA is replicated
The protein coats and DNA are assembled into new viral particles
The host cell wall to ruptures releasing the newly formed viruses

Upon entering the cell, the viral DNA may instead, become integrated into the bacterial DNA
It is replicated along with the host DNA when the host reproduces
Eventually, it will become transcribed and translated

Retroviruses:

Contain RNA & the enzyme reverse transcriptase
Reverse transcriptase can make a DNA copy of the viral RNA
The new DNA produced from the RNA template is called cDNA
DNA synthesis follows the production of cDNA to produce a double-helix
cDNA then becomes incorporated into the host DNA (called a prophage)
The new viruses escape the host cell by budding
The AIDS virus (HIV) is an example of a retrovirus

Vectors

Vectors are used to transfer genes into a host cell
Plasmids & viruses are the most commonly used vectors
A vector must be capable of self-replicating inside a cell
Viruses are the vectors of choice for animal cells
Marker genes can be used to determine if the gene has been taken up

Plasmids:

Small rings of DNA in bacterial cells
Used to transfer genes to other organisms
Host bacterium takes up the plasmid, which includes the foreign gene
When bacteria reproduce, plasmids with the new gene are also reproduced
This clones (copies) the gene each time the bacteria reproduces

Viruses:

Can accept larger amounts of DNA than plasmids
Once the virus enters the host cell, it also reproduces the foreign gene it carries
The copied gene is “cloned”

Restriction enzymes:

Restriction enzymes were discovered in bacteria
Bacteria use them as a defense mechanism to cut up the DNA of viruses or other bacteria
Hundreds of different restriction enzymes have been isolated
Each restriction enzyme or RE cuts DNA at a specific base sequence
For example, EcoRI always cuts DNA at GAATTC as indicated below

The sequence GAATTC appears three times in the DNA strand below. As a result, the strand is cut into four pieces

Other restriction enzymes cut at different sites, some examples are listed below

Enzyme	Cutting Site
Bam HI	GGATCC
Hae III	GGCC
Pst I	CTGCAG
Hind I	GANTC

Sticky Ends & Recombinant DNA:

Fragments of DNA that has been cut with restriction enzymes have unpaired nucleotides at the ends called sticky ends

Sticky ends have complimentary bases, so they could rejoin
If the vector and the gene to be cloned are both cut with the same restriction enzyme, they will both have complimentary sticky ends
After cutting, the 2 DNA samples are mixed
Fragments with complementary sticky ends join together forming recombinant DNA (contains gene from vector & the gene to be cloned)
Enzyme DNA ligase seals the fragments together
Bacteria such as Escherichia coli are capable of taking up DNA from their environment
This process is called transformation
CaCl2 and a procedure called heat shock are used to make E. coli cells more permeable so that they take up the modified plasmids more readily

Genomic Libraries:

A genome is all of the genes in a particular organism
Bacteria or virus vectors can be used to store fragments of the DNA from another species
The DNA is cut up into fragments, and the different fragments are inserted into bacteria or viruses
The collection of bacteria or viruses is called a genomic library

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR):

Used to make many copies of small pieces of DNA
Procedure requires primers, DNA polymerase, and nucleotides
Primers are short chains of about 20 nucleotides that are complimentary to a region in the DNA to be amplified
DNA polymerase cannot continue the process unless it has already been started by primers
Nucleotides are needed because DNA is composed of nucleotide “building blocks”

The DNA is heated to approximately 95o C to separate the two strands of the double helix

After the strands are separated, the DNA is cooled to about 50o C, and the primers attach

The temperature is raised to approximately 70o C so the polymerase will attach to & copy the strand

The DNA replication process repeats itself as the solution is then heated and cooled at regular intervals

DNA Fingerprinting (RFLP Analysis):

In RFLP analysis, the DNA of an organism is cut up into fragments using restriction enzymes producing a large number of short fragments of DNA
Because no two individuals have identical DNA, no two individuals will have the same length fragments
Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate the DNA fragments according to their size
The fragments are placed in wells on a sheet of gelatin, and an electric current is applied to the sheet
DNA is negatively charged and will move in an electric field toward the positive pole

The smallest fragments will move the fastest because they are able to move through the pores in the gelatin faster
Bands will be produced on the gelatin where the fragments accumulate
Shortest fragments will accumulate near one end of the gelatin (furthest from the wells), and the longer, slower-moving ones will remain near the other end
DNA bands must be stained to make them visible

Gene Products & Uses of Genetic Engineering:

E. coli is used to produce proteins such as insulin by genetic engineering because it is easily grown
To recover the product, E. coli must be lysed or the gene must be linked to a gene that produces a naturally secreted protein
Yeasts can be genetically engineered and are likely to secrete the gene product continuously
Mammalian cells can be engineered to produce proteins such as hormones for medical use
Plant cells take up a plasmid from Agrobacterium
Plant cells can be engineered and used to produce plants with new properties such as Roundup Ready soybeans
Pseudomonas bacteria has been engineered to produce Bacillus thuringiensis or BT
BT bacteria make a toxin against insects, thus producing a natural insecticide (example – B.T. cotton)
Animal viruses can be engineered to carry a gene for a pathogen’s surface protein so the virus can be used as a vaccine
Genetic engineering techniques are being used to map the human genome through the Human Genome Project
Could provide tools for diagnosis and possible repair of genetic disease
Recombinant DNA techniques can be used for genetic fingerprinting
Gene therapy can be used to cure genetic diseases by replacing the defective or missing gene
Bovine growth hormone (BGH) increases milk production in cows by about 10%

Safety and Ethical Issues:

Harmful organisms may be accidentally produced
Organisms that are intended to be released in the environment may be engineered with genes that will eventually kill them
There is little legislation on the use of genetic screening and information produced by screening
The technology is increasing the ability to diagnose genetic diseases pre-natally, adding new complexity to the abortion controversy
Ethical questions have been raised over whether we should modify the genes of humans
Genetic screening and gene therapy are expensive and may be unavailable to the poor
Biological weapons could be created using biotechnology

Biochemistry Notes BI Chapter 3

Biochemistry

All Materials © Cmassengale

I. Cells Contain Organic Molecules

A. Most Common Elements

1. Most common elements in living things are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen.

2. These four elements constitute about 95% of your body weight.

3. Chemistry of carbon allows the formation of an enormous variety of organic molecules.

4. Organic molecules have carbon and hydrogen; determine structure and function of living things.

5. Inorganic molecules do not contain carbon and hydrogen together; inorganic molecules (e.g., NaCl) can play important roles in living things.

B. Small Molecules Have Functional Groups

1. Carbon has four electrons in outer shell; bonds with up to four other atoms (usually H, O, N, or another C).

2. Ability of carbon to bond to itself makes possible carbon chains and rings; these structures serve as the backbones of organic molecules.

3. Functional groups are clusters of atoms with characteristic structure and functions.

a. Polar molecules (with +/- charges) are attracted to water molecules and are hydrophilic.

b. Nonpolar molecules are repelled by water and do not dissolve in water; are hydrophobic.

c. Hydrocarbon is hydrophobic except when it has an attached ionized functional group such as carboxyl (acid) ( COOH); then molecule is hydrophilic.

d. Cells are 70-90% water; degree organic molecules interact with water affects their function.

4. Isomers are molecules with identical molecular formulas but differ in arrangement of their atoms

C. Large Organic Molecules Have Monomers

1. Each small organic molecule can be a unit of a large organic molecule called a macromolecule.

2. Small organic molecules (e.g., monosaccharides, glycerol and fatty acid, amino acids, and nucleotides) that can serve as monomers, the subunits of polymers.

3. Polymers are the large macromolecules composed of three to millions of monomer subunits.

4. Four classes of macromolecules (polysaccharides or carbohydrates, triglycerides or lipids, polypeptides or proteins, & nucleic acids such as DNA & RNA) provide great diversity.

D. Condensation Is the Reverse of Hydration

1. Macromolecules build by different bonding of different monomers; mechanism of joining and breaking these bonds is condensation and hydrolysis.

2. Cellular enzymes carry out condensation and hydrolysis of polymers.

3. Condensation involves a dehydration synthesis because a water is removed (dehydration) and a bond is made (synthesis).

a. When two monomers join, a hydroxyl ( OH) group is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen is removed from the other.

b. This produces the water given off during a condensation reaction.

4. Hydrolysis (hydration) reactions break down polymers in reverse of condensation; a hydroxyl
( OH) group from water attaches to one monomer and hydrogen ( H) attaches to the other.

II. Carbohydrates

A. Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides

1. Monosaccharides are simple sugars with a carbon backbone of three to seven carbon atoms.

a. Best known sugars have six carbons (hexoses).

[Glucose Straight Structure]

1) Glucose and fructose isomers have same formula (C6H12O6) but differ in structure.

2) Glucose is commonly found in blood of animals; is immediate energy source to cells.

3) Fructose is commonly found in fruit.

4) Shape of molecules is very important in determining how they interact with one another.

2. Ribose and deoxyribose are five-carbon sugars (pentoses); contribute to the backbones of RNA and DNA, respectively.

3. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharides joined by condensation.

a. Sucrose is composed of glucose and fructose and is transported within plants.

sucrose molecule - Sucrose

b. Lactose is composed of galactose and glucose and is found in milk.

c. Maltose is two glucose molecules; forms in digestive tract of humans during starch digestion.

Sugar	Sweetness
fructose	173%
sucrose	100%
glucose	74%
maltose	33%
galactose	33%
lactose	16%

B. Polysaccharides Are Varied in Structure and Function

1. Polysaccharides are chains of glucose molecules or modified glucose molecules

a. Starch is straight chain of glucose molecules with few side branches.

b. Glycogen is highly branched polymer of glucose with many side branches; called “animal starch,” it is storage carbohydrate in the liver of animals.

c. Cellulose is glucose bonded to form microfibrils; primary constituent of plant cell walls.

d. Chitin is polymer of glucose with amino acid attached to each; it is primary constituent of crabs and related animals like lobsters and insects.

III. Lipids

A. Lipids

1. Lipids are varied in structure.

2. Many are insoluble in water because they lack polar groups.

B. Fats and Oils Are Similar

1. Each fatty acid is a long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl (acid) group at one end.

a. Because the carboxyl group is a polar group, fatty acids are soluble in water.

b. Most fatty acids in cells contain 16 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule.

c. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between their carbon atoms. (C-C-C-)

d. Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds in the carbon chain.(C-C-C-C=C-C-)

e. Saturated animal fats are associated with circulatory disorders; plant oils can be substituted for animal fats in the diet.

2. Glycerol is a water-soluble compound with three hydroxyl groups.

3. Triglycerides are glycerol joined to three fatty acids by condensation

4. Fats are triglycerides containing saturated fatty acids (e.g., butter is solid at room temperature).

5. Oils are triglycerides with unsaturated fatty acids (e.g., corn oil is liquid at room temperature).

6. Fats function in long-term energy storage in organisms; store six times the energy as glycogen.

C. Waxes Are Nonpolar Also

1. Waxes are a long-chain fatty acid bonded to a long-chain alcohol.

a. Solid at room temperature; have a high melting point; are waterproof and resist degradation.

b. Form protective covering that retards water loss in plants; maintain animal skin and fur.

D. Phospholipids Have a Polar Group

1. Phospholipids are like neutral fats except one fatty acid is replaced by phosphate group or a group with both phosphate and nitrogen

[Lecithin]

2.Phosphate group is the polar head: hydrocarbon chain becomes nonpolar tails

3. Phospholipids arrange themselves in a double layer in water, so the polar heads face outward toward water molecules and nonpolar tails face toward each other away from water molecules.

[Phospholipid Bilayer]

4. This property enables them to form an interface or separation between two solutions (e.g., the interior and exterior of a cell); the plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer.

E. Steroids Have Carbon Rings

1. Steroids differ from neutral fats; steroids have a backbone of four fused carbon rings; vary according to attached functional groups.

2. Cholesterol is a precursor of other steroids, including aldosterone and sex hormones.

3. Testosterone is the male sex hormone.

4. Functions vary due primarily to different attached functional groups.

IV. Proteins

A. Amino Acids

1. Amino acids are the monomers that condense to form proteins, which are very large molecules with structural and metabolic functions.

2. Structural proteins include keratin, which makes up hair and nails, and collagen fibers, which support many organs.

3. Myosin and actin proteins make up the bulk of muscle.

4. Enzymes are proteins that act as organic catalysts to speed chemical reactions within cells.

5. Insulin protein is a hormone that regulates glucose content of blood.

6. Hemoglobin transports oxygen in blood.

7. Proteins embedded in the plasma membrane have varied enzymatic and transport functions.

B. Peptide Bonds Join Amino Acids

1. All amino acids contain a carboxyl (acid) group ( COOH) and an amino group ( NH2).

2. Both ionize at normal body pH to produce COO- and NH+; thus, amino acids are hydrophilic.

3. Peptide bond is a covalent bond between amino acids in a peptide; results from condensation reaction.

a. Atoms of a peptide bond share electrons unevenly (oxygen is more electronegative than nitrogen).

b. Polarity of the peptide bond permits hydrogen bonding between parts of a polypeptide.

Diagram representing the above description

4. Amino acids differ in nature of R group, ranging from single hydrogen to complicated ring compounds.

a. R group of amino acid cysteine ends with a sulfhydryl ( SH) that serves to connect one chain of amino acids to another by a disulfide bond ( S S).

b. There are 20 different amino acids commonly found in cells.

5. A peptide is two or more amino acids joined together.

a. Polypeptides are chains of many amino acids joined by peptide bonds.

b. Protein may contain more than one polypeptide chain; it can have large numbers of amino acids.

C. Proteins Can Be Denatured

1. Both temperature and pH can change polypeptide shape.

a. Examples: heating egg white causes albumin to congeal; adding acid to milk causes curdling. When such proteins lose their normal configuration, the protein is denatured.

b. Once a protein loses its normal shape, it cannot perform its usual function.

2. The sequence of amino acids, therefore, forecasts the protein’s final shape.

D. Proteins Have Levels of Structure

1. Final 3-D shape of a protein determines function of the protein in the organism.

a. Primary structure is sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.

1) Frederick Sanger determined first protein sequence, with hormone insulin, in 1953.

a) First broke insulin into fragments and determined amino acid sequence of fragments.

b) Then determined sequence of the fragments themselves.

c) Required ten years research; modern automated sequencers analyze sequences in hours.

2) Since amino acids differ by R group, proteins differ by a particular sequence of the R groups.

b. Secondary structure results when a polypeptide takes a particular shape.

1) The (alpha) helix was the first pattern discovered by Linus Pauling and Robert Corey.

a) In peptide bonds, oxygen is partially negative, hydrogen is partially positive.

b) Allows hydrogen bonding between the C O of one amino acid and the N H of another.

c) Hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid holds spiral shape of a helix.

d) helices covalently bonded by disulfide (S S) linkages between two cysteine amino acids.

2) The sheet was the second pattern discovered.

a) Pleated sheet polypeptides turn back upon themselves; hydrogen bonding occurs between extended lengths.

b) keratin includes keratin of feathers, hooves, claws, beaks, scales, and horns; silk also is protein with sheet secondary structure.

3. Tertiary structure results when proteins of secondary structure are folded, due to various interactions between the R groups of their constituent amino acids

4. Quaternary structure results when two or more polypeptides combine.

1) Hemoglobin is globular protein with a quaternary structure of four polypeptides.

2) Most enzymes have a quaternary structure.

V. Nucleic Acids

A. Nucleotides

1. Nucleotides are a molecular complex of three types of molecules: a phosphate (phosphoric acid), a pentose sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base.

2. Nucleotides have metabolic functions in cells.

a. Coenzymes are molecules, which facilitate enzymatic reactions.

b. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a nucleotide used to supply energy.

c. Nucleotides also serve as nucleic acid monomers.

B. Nucleic Acids

1. Nucleic acids are huge polymers of nucleotides with very specific functions in cells.

2. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the nucleic acid whose nucleotide sequence stores the genetic code for its own replication and for the sequence of amino acids in proteins.

3. RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a single-stranded nucleic acid that translates the genetic code of DNA into the amino acid sequence of proteins.

4. DNA and RNA differ in the following ways:

a. Nucleotides of DNA contain deoxyribose sugar; nucleotides of RNA contain ribose.

b. In RNA, the base uracil occurs instead of the base thymine, as in DNA.

c. DNA is double-stranded with complementary base pairing; RNA is single-stranded.

1) Complementary base pairing occurs where two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds between purine and pyrimidine bases

2) The number of purine bases always equals the number of pyrimidine bases; called Chargaff’s rule

3) Adenine pairs with Thymine & guanine pairs with cytoseine on DNA

4) Guanine & adenine are purines; Cytosine & thymine are pyrimidines

d. Two strands of DNA twist to form a double; RNA generally does not form helices.

C. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

1. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a nucleotide of adenosine composed of ribose and adenine.

2. Derives its name from three phosphates attached to the five-carbon portion of the molecule.

3. ATP is a high-energy molecule because the last two unstable phosphate bonds are easily broken.

4. Usually in cells, a terminal phosphate bond is hydrolyzed, leaving ADP (adenosine diphosphate).

5. ATP is used in cells to supply energy for energy-requiring processes (e.g., synthetic reactions); whenever a cell carries out an activity or builds molecules, it “spends” ATP.

Summary of Biological Macromolecules:

Macromolecule	Building Blocks	Functions
Polysaccharides	Sugars (monosaccharides)	Energy storage (4 Cal/gm) Structure (cell walls, exoskeletons)
Lipids (Triglycerides)	Fatty acids, glycerol	Energy storage (9 Cal/gm)
Lipids (Phospholipids)	Fatty acids, glycerol, phosphate group	Cell membranes
Proteins	Amino acids (20 types)	Cell structure Enzymes Molecular motors (muscle, etc) Membrane pumps & channels Hormones & receptors Immune system: antibodies
Nucleic Acids: DNA (forms a double helix)	4 Bases: A, C, G, T Deoxyribose sugar Phosphate Subunits called nucleotides	Storage of hereditary information (genetic code)
Nucleic Acids (RNA) 3 types: m-RNA t-RNA r-RNA (usually a single strand)	4 Bases: A, C, G, U Ribose sugar Phosphate Subunits called nucleotides	Protein synthesis: m-RNA: working copy of genetic code for a gene (transcription) t-RNA & r-RNA: translation of the code

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Biochemistry Quiz

Name:

Biochemistry Quiz

True/False

Indicate whether the sentence or statement is true or false.

Because water is a polar molecule, it tends to cause ionic compounds mixed in water to dissociate into ions.

Capillarity is apparent when you put a straw in water and the water level inside the straw rises higher than the level in the surrounding container.

Organic compounds are substances produced and found in living things.

Functional groups are side groups of carbon compounds that confer specific properties to these compounds.

Multiple Choice

Identify the letter of the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

Which of the following characteristics of water is not a result of hydrogen bonding?

a.	adhesive strength
b.	capillarity
c.	cohesive strength
d.	All of the above are a result of hydrogen bonding.

Carbon is different from most other elements in that

a.	it has four electrons in its outermost energy level.
b.	it readily bonds with other carbon atoms.
c.	it can form single, double, or triple bonds with other atoms.
d.	it shares two electrons with another atom when it forms a covalent bond.

Which of the following is not true of alcohols?

a.	They contain a hydroxyl group (–OH).
b.	They are polar molecules.
c.	They can affect processes in living things, either positively or negatively.
d.	They are the only kind of functional group in organic molecules that contain oxygen.

Amino acids are monomers of

a.	disaccharides.	c.	nucleotides.
b.	proteins.	d.	steroids.

Which organic molecule below is most closely related to lipids?

a.	amino acids	c.	nucleotides
b.	CH2 chains	d.	sugars

10.

Which organic molecule below is most closely related to nucleic acids?

a.	amino acids	c.	nucleotides
b.	CH2 chains	d.	sugars

Completion

Complete each sentence or statement.

11.

Water is very effective at dissolving other polar substances because of its ____________________.

12.

Breaking of ____________________ bonds is the first thing that happens when water is heated, which means that it takes a great deal of thermal energy to raise the temperature of water.

13.

In the molecule that has the chemical formula C2H4, the carbon atoms are bonded together with a ____________________ bond.

14.

Because oxygen atoms tend to attract positively charged atoms, organic compounds that contain oxygen atoms tend to form ____________________ bonds.

15.

In a condensation reaction, two molecules become linked together and a molecule of ____________________ is produced.

16.

The formation of polymers from monomers occurs as a result of ____________________ reactions, and the breakdown of polymers into monomers occurs as a result of ____________________ reactions.

17.

Lipids are ____________________ molecules because they have no negative and positive poles.

18.

A phospholipid is a molecule with a(n) ____________________ head.

19.

Lipids are ____________________ molecules because they have no negative and positive poles.

20.

A phospholipid is a molecule with a(n) ____________________ head.

Biochemistry Study Guide

Biochemistry Study Guide

1. Molecules with a slightly negative end and a slightly positive end are called ___________________ _____________________________.

2. A monomer of protein is called an __________________ __________________.

3. An attractive force between like particles is called ___________________________.

4. Organic molecules that catalyze reactions in living systems are ______________________.

5. The compound found in living things that supplies the energy in one of its chemical bonds directly to cells is ______________________.

6. Enzymes lower activation energy by___________ to the ____________________ and ______________________ bonds within the ________________________.

7. The monomers that make up nucleic acids are called __________________________.

8. The type of attraction that holds two water molecules together is called __________________________ __________________________.

9. The sharing of three pairs of electrons is called a ___________________ _____________.

10. The structural building block that determines the characteristics of a compound is called the _____________________________ _______________________.

11. Large carbon compounds are built from smaller molecules called ______________________________.

12. What is the type of reaction that forms large molecules from smaller ones? _________________________________ _____________________________.

13. What type of reaction breaks large molecules into smaller ones? _______________________

14. What is the by product of a condensation reaction? __________________________

15. The attractive force between unlike particles is called ____________________________.

16. A compound that is stored as glycogen in animals and as a starch in plants is ____________________________________.

17. Lipids are good energy storage molecules because they have many _________________-___________________ bonds.

18. What are the components of many lipids? ________________________ ______________________

19. What is the monomer of many polysaccharides? ______________________________

20. What kind of reaction allows amino acids to become linked together? ________________________________ _____________________________.

21. Nucleic acids function primarily to carry __________________________ ____________________ and direct _____________________ ______________________.

22. Tends not to react with water, “Water Fearing” ________________________________

23. Attracted to water molecules, “Water Loving” _________________________________

24. Water is called a ___________________________ ___________________________.
DIRECTIONS: Read Chapter 3, Biochemistry, and Answer the questions below as completely and as thoroughly as possible. Answer the question in essay form (not outline form), using complete sentences. You may use diagrams or pictures to supplement your answers, but a diagram or picture alone without appropriate discussion is inadequate.

1. Describe the structure of a water molecule, and explain how the electrical charge is distributed over the molecule.

2. Describe the structure of amino acids and proteins.

3. What are the structural differences between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides?

4. What is capillarity? Include defining Adhesion and Cohesion.

5. How does a condensation reaction differ from a hydrolysis reaction?

6. Give Three reasons why water is an effective solvent.

7. What is an organic compound?

8. What property allows carbon compounds to exist in a number of forms?

9. The presence of four electrons in the outermost energy level of a carbon atom enables
carbon atoms to form what THREE Things.

10. Living things contain many different proteins of vastly different shapes and functions.
What determines the shape and thus the function of a particular protein?

11. How does the structure of a phospholipid, linear molecules with a polar end and a
nonpolar end, relate to their function in the cell membrane?

Viral Reproduction:

Bacteriophages:

Restriction enzymes:

Gene Products & Uses of Genetic Engineering:

SPRING BREAK