Category: Cellular Processes

 

Osmosis & Diffusion – Lab 1

Introduction:

All molecules have kinetic energy and are constantly in motion.  This motion causes the molecules to bump into each other and move in different directions.  The result is diffusion.  Diffusion is the random movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. This will continue until dynamic equilibrium is reached; no net movement will occur.  Osmosis is a special kind of diffusion.  It is the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. A selectively permeable membrane means that the membrane will only allow certain molecules through such as water, small solutes, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and glucose, because no additional ATP is required. The membrane will not let ions, nonpolar molecules, or large molecules through because extra ATP is needed for them to travel across the membrane.  Active transport is how molecules (such as ions) move against the concentration gradient.  Additional ATP is required to perform this process.

Water will travel from an area of high water potential to an area of low water potential.  Water potential is the measure of free energy of water in a certain solution.  It is measured by using the Greek letter psi (ψ).  The formula for figuring water potential is:

ψ          =             ψp             +           ψs

Water Potential   =   Pressure Potential   +  Solute Potential

Water potential is affected by 2 different factors.  They are the addition of a solute and the pressure potential.  If a solute is added to the water, then the water potential is lowered.  If more pressure is placed on the water, then the potential is raised. The addition of a solute and water potential are inversely proportional.  Pressure being placed onto the water and the potential of the water are directly proportional.

Solutions can have three relationships with each other; isotonic, hypertonic, or hypotonic.  When the solutions have the same concentration of solutes, they are isotonic.  There is no net change in the amount of water on each side of the membrane.  If the solutions differ in their solute concentrations, the solution that has the most solute is hypertonic to the other solution.  The solution with the smaller amount of solute is hypotonic to the other solution. The net movement of water will be from the hypertonic solution to the hypotonic solution. Net movement will occur until dynamic equilibrium is reached, then there will be no net movement of water.

Hypothesis:

In this lab, osmosis and diffusion will occur between the solutions of different concentration until dynamic equilibrium is reached and there is no net movement of water.

Materials:

Exercise 1A:

The materials used include a 30cm piece of 2.5cm dialysis tubing, string, scissors, 15mL of 15% glucose/1% starch solution, 250mL beaker, distilled water, and 4mL of Lugol’s solution (Iodine Potassium-Iodine or IKI).

Exercise 1B:

This exercise required six 30cm strips of presoaked dialysis tuning, six 250mL cups or beakers, string, scissors, a balance, and 25mL of  these solutions: distilled water, 0.2M sucrose, 0.4M sucrose, 0.6M sucrose, 0.8M sucrose, and 1.0M sucrose.

Exercise 1C:

The materials that were required include 100mL of these solutions: distilled water, 0.2M sucrose, 0.4M sucrose, 0.6M sucrose, 0.8M sucrose, and 1.0M sucrose, six 250mL beakers or cups, a potato, a cork borer, a balance, paper towel, and plastic wrap.

Exercise 1D:

The materials used include a calculator, and a pencil.

Procedure:

Exercise 1A:

Soak the dialysis tubing in water.  Tie off one end of the tubing to form a bag.  Open the bag and place the glucose/starch solution in it.  Tie off the other end of the bag, leaving enough room for expansion of the contents in the bag.  Record the color of the solution in Table 1.1.  Next, test the glucose/starch solution for the presence of glucose.  Record the results in Table 1.1.  Fill a 250mL beaker or cup with 2/3 full with distilled water.  Add 4mL of Lugol’s solution to the distilled water and record the color of the solution in Table 1.1.  Test the solution for glucose and record the results in Table 1.1.  Immerse the bag in the beaker of solution.  Allow the beaker and bag to stand for approximately 30 minutes or until you see a distinct color change in the bag and the beaker.  Record the final color of the solution in the bag, and the solution in the beaker, in Table 1.1.  Test the liquid in the beaker and in the bag for the presence of glucose.  Record the results in Table 1.1.

Exercise 1B:

Obtain the six strips of presoaked dialysis tubing and create a bag out of each one by tying off one end.  Pour 25mL of the 6 solutions into separate bags. Tie off the other end of the 6 bags.  Rinse each bag gently with distilled water and blot dry.  Determine the mass of each bag and record it in Table 1.2.  Immerse each bag in one beaker filled will distilled water and label the beaker to indicate the molarity of the solution in the bag.  Let the setups stand for 30 minutes.  Remove the bags from the water.  Carefully blot them dry and determine their masses.  Record them in Table 1.2.  Obtain the other lab groups data to complete Table 1.3.

Exercise 1C:

Pour 100mL of the solutions into a labeled 250mL beaker.  Use a cork borer to cut potato cylinders.  You need 4 cylinders for each cup.  Determine the mass of the 4 cylinders together and record the amount in Table 1.4.  Place the cylinders into the beaker of sucrose solution.  Cover the beaker with plastic wrap to prevent evaporation.  Let it stand overnight.  Remove the cores from the beaker and blot them gently on a paper towel and determine their total mass.  Record the results in Table 1.4.  Calculate the percentage change.  Do this for the individual and class data.  Graph the class average percentage change in mass.

Exercise 1D:

Determine the solute, pressure, and water potential of the sucrose solution.  Then, graph the information that is given about the zucchini cores.

Results:

Exercise 1A:

 Table 1.1

 

 

1. Which substances are entering the bag and which are leaving the bag? What evidence supports the answer?  Distilled water and IKI are  leaving and entering.  Glucose is able to leave the bag.
2. Explain the results that were obtained.  Include the concentration differences and membrane pore size in the discussion.  Glucose and small molecules were able to move through the pores.  Water and IKI moved from high to low concentration.
3. How could this experiment be modified so that quantitative data could be collected to show that water diffused into the dialysis bag?  You could mass the bag before and after it was placed into the solution.
4. Based on your observations, rank the following by relative size, beginning with the smallest: glucose molecules, water molecules, IKI molecules, membrane pores, and starch molecules.  Water molecules, IKI molecules, Glucose molecules, Membrane pores, and Starch molecules
5. What results would you expect if the experiment started with a glucose and IKI solution inside the bag and only starch and water outside?  The glucose and IKI would move out of the bag and turn the starch and water solution purple/blue.  The starch couldn’t move inside the bag because its molecules are too big to pass through the membrane of the tubing.

Exercise 1B:

 

Table 1.2: Dialysis Bag Results: Individual Data

 

 

Table 1.3: Dialysis Bag Results: Class Data

 

 

1. Explain the relationship between the change in mass and the molarity of sucrose within the dialysis bags.  The solute is hypertonic and water will move into the bag.  As the molarity increases the water moves into the bag.
2. Predict what would happen to the mass of each bag in this experiment if all the bags were placed in a 0.4M sucrose solution instead of distilled water.  Explain.  With the 0.2M bag, the water would move out.  With the 0.4M bag, there will be no net movement of water because the solutions reach dynamic equilibrium.  With the 0.6M-1M bags, the water would move into the bag.
3. Why did you calculate the percent change in mass rather than simply using the change in mass?  This was calculated because each group began with different initial masses and we would have different data.  All the groups needed consistent data.
4. A dialysis bag is filled with distilled water and then places in a sucrose solution.  The bag’s initial mass is 20g and its final mass is 18g.  Calculate the percent change of mass, showing your calculations.  ((18-20)/20) x 100 = 10%
5. The sucrose solution in the beaker would have been hypotonic to the distilled water in the bag.

Exercise 1C

 

Table 1.4: Potato Core: Individual Data

 

 

Table 1.5: Potato Core: Class Data

 

 

Determine the molar concentration of the potato core.  0.3M

Exercise 1D

 

 

What is the molar concentration of the zucchini cores? .35M

 

1. If a potato core is allowed to dehydrate by sitting in the open air, would the water potential of the potato cells decrease or increase? Why?  It would decrease because the water would leave the cells and cause the water potential to go down.
2. If a plant cell has a lower water potential than its surrounding environment and if pressure is equal to zero, is the cell hypertonic or hypotonic to its environment? Will the cell gain water or lose water?  It is hypotonic and it will gain water.
3. The beaker is open to the atmosphere.  What is the pressure potential of the system?  The pressure potential is zero.
4. Where is the greatest water potential?  In the dialysis bag.
5. Water will diffuse out of the bag. Why? It is because the water moves from and area of high water potential to an area of lower water potential.
6. What effect does adding solute have on the solute potential component of that solution? Why?  It makes is more negative.
7. Consider what would happen to a red blood cell placed in distilled water: a) Which would have the higher concentration of water molecules?  Distilled Water  b) Which would have the higher water potential?  Distilled Water  c)  What would happen to the red blood cell? Why?  It would lyce, because it would take on too much water.

Error Analysis:

Possible errors that could have affected the results of the lab include incorrectly mixing the solutions, ineffectively tying the dialysis tubing, inaccurately measuring , and inaccurately calculating.

Conclusion:

            During Exercise 1A the data that was collected help determine which molecules can and can not move across a cell membrane. Obviously, because of the color change in the bag, the IKI was able to move across the membrane.  It is small enough to fit through the pores in the selectively permeable membrane, along with water.  Starch was too large to move across the membrane. Glucose, as the Benedict’s test proves, was able to move freely along with the water and IKI solution.

In Exercise 1B, it was proven that water moves faster across the cell membrane than sucrose.  The water moved to help reach dynamic equilibrium between the 2 solutions.  The sucrose molecules are too big to move across the membrane as fast as water can.

The data in Exercise 1C showed that the potatoes contained sucrose.  The sucrose in the potato raised the solute potential, which lowered the water potential.  The beaker of distilled water had a high water potential.  Water moves down the concentration gradient, causing the potato cores to take on water.

Exercise 1D helped better understand the lab with simple algebra equations.  It proved that the data that was collected was correct through mathematics.

 

 

 

Introduction

 

Cellular respiration is the release of energy from organic compounds by metabolic chemical oxidation in the mitochondria within each cell. Enzyme mediated reactions are required. The equation for cellular respiration is:

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 à 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 686 kilocalories of energy/mole of glucose oxidized

Several different measures can be taken from this equation. The consumption of oxygen, which will tell you how many moles of oxygen are consumed during cellular respiration. That is what was measured in this lab. The production of CO2 can also be measured. And of course the release of energy can be measured. Cellular respiration is a catabolic pathway and the mitochondria houses most of the metabolic equipment for cellular respiration. It will break down glucose in what we call an exergonic reaction. Like previously said, the consumption of oxygen molecules will be measured in a gas form. One must know the physical laws of gases when working with them. The laws are summarized by the following equation.

PV=Nrt

Where:

P stands for the pressure of the gas

V is the volume of the gas

n is the number of molecules of gas

R is the gas constant (fixed value)

T is the temperature of the gas ( in K° )

The CO2 produced during cellular respiration will be removed by potassium hydroxide (KOH) and will form a solid potassium carbonate (K2CO3) when the following reaction occurs: CO2 + 2 KOH à K2CO3+ H2O

Since the CO2 is removed, the change in the volume of gas in the respirometer will be directly related to the amount of oxygen consumed. If the water temp and volume stay constant then the water will move toward the region of lower pressure. During respiration, oxygen will be consumed and its volume will be reduced because the CO2 is being converted to a solid. The net result is a decrease in gas volume in the tube and a decrease in pressure of the tube. The vial with beads will detect any atmospheric changes.

Hypothesis

Several different things will affect the rate of O2 consumption. The non germinating peas will have a lower rate than the germinating peas and the coldness of the water will slow the rates.

Materials

The materials used for this lab were: a 100 mL graduated cylinder, 6vials,germinating peas, dry peas, glass beads, 2 water baths, absorbent cotton and non-absorbent cotton, weights, KOH, water, stoppers, pipettes, rubber bands, masking tape, glue, thermometer, ice, a pencil, and paper.

Methods

Set up a 25° C and a 10° C water bath. Ice may be used to obtain 10° C.

Respirometer 1:Obtain a 100 mL graduated cylinder and fill it with 50 mL of H2O.

Drop in 25 germinating peas. Determine the amount of water displaced. Pea volume =11 mL. Take peas out and place on paper towel.

Respirometer 2: refill cylinder with 50 mL of H2O. Drop 25 dry peas into the cylinder. Add glass beads to obtain the same volume that you got in respirometer 1. Remove peas and beads to a paper towel.

Respirometer 3: Add 50 mL of water to the cylinder. Put only beads in to get an equivalent volume to the first 2 respirometers. Put on paper towel when finished. Repeat respirometer 1 steps for respirometer 4. And 2 for 5. And 3 for 6. Listen to your teacher on how and where to set up the respirometers. Now fill your vials with the required items shown in the table and in figure 5.1. Seal the vials after your items have been put in to stop any gas or water leaks. Place a weighted collar onto the bottom of your vials so they will stay submerged in the water baths. During equilibration use masking tape attached to each side of the water baths to hold the respirometers out of water for 7 minutes. Vials 1-3 should be in the 25° C water bath and vials 4-6 should be in the 10° C water bath. Finally submerge totally the respirometers and let them equilibrate for 3 more minutes. Read the water line where the oxygen is and record in intervals of 5 minutes all the way up to 25 minutes. Record in table 5.1.

 

Results

Table 5.1: Measurement of O2 Consumption by Soaked and Dry Pea Seeds at Room Temperature and 10° C Using Volumetric Methods

 

 

In this activity, you are investigating both the effects of germination versus non-germination and warm temperature versus cold temperature on respiration rate. Identify the hypothesis being tested on this activity.
The nongerminating peas will have a slower rate of respiration than the germinating peas and the coldness of the water will slow down the rate as it gets colder.

 

This activity uses a number of controls. Identify at least three of the controls, and describe the purpose of each.
The three controls are the beads in one vial controlling the barometric pressure, the KOH keeps equality in the consumption of CO2, and the time intervals give each vial the same amount of time so the results will not be affected.

Describe and explain the relationship between the amount of oxygen consumed and time.
The relationship was pretty constant, there may have been a gradual rising in O2 consumption.

5.

Why is it necessary to correct the readings from the peas with the readings from the beads?
The beads were just a control, experiencing no gas change.

 

Explain the effects of germination (versus non-germination) on pea seed respiration.
The germinating seeds had a higher metabolic rate and therefore consumed more oxygen than the nongerminating.

Above is a sample graph of possible data obtained for oxygen consumption by germinating peas up to about 8 oC. Draw in predicted results through 45 oC. Explain your prediction.
Once the temperature gets above about 30 degrees C, the enzymes will denature and that will be the end of respiration.

 

What is the purpose of KOH in this experiment?
The KOH will take the CO2 and turn it to a precipitant at the bottom of the vial and it will have no affect on the O2 readings.

 

Why did the vial have to be completely sealed under the stopper?
The vial had to be sealed or gas would leak out and water could leak in and affect the results.

 

If you used the same experimental design to compare the rates of respiration of a 35g mammal at 10 oC, what results would you expect? Explain your reasoning.
Respiration would be higher in the mammal because they are warm-blooded.

 

If respiration in a small mammal were studied at both room temperature (21 oC) and 10 oC, what results would you predict? Explain your reasoning.
The rate of respiration would be higher in the 21-degree bath because the mammal would perform better when its body was more comfortable.

 

Explain why water moved into the respirometer pipettes.
The water moved in the vial because it was fully submerged in water but it came to a stop when it met the oxygen coming out of the vial.

14. Design an experiment to examine the rates of cellular respiration in peas that have been germinating for 0, 24, 48, and 72 hours. What results would you expect? Why?
You could put peas in vials each from a time interval above. You would have a vial with just started germinating peas, one with 24 hour germinating peas, another with 48 hour peas, and the last with 72 hour peas. Place them in a room temp water bath. Take readings at intervals of 5 min up to 20 min. The 72-hour peas should have more O2 consumption because they will use more oxygen because they have been germinating the longest. The just started germinating peas would use the least O2 because they haven’t been germinating vary long. The other two will be in the middle of the “just started peas” and the “72 hour peas”.

 

Error Analysis

 

Many errors could have been made in this lab. There could have been miscalculations when trying to equal the pea volumes. The stoppers might not have been sealed and gas could have been lost from the vials affecting the results with vengeance. The water temperatures had to be maintained precisely or the results would not be what they should be. There was also a lot of math in this lab when figuring results and many numbers could have been affected by this poor math.

 

Disussion and Conclusion

This lab showed many things about thew rates of cellular respiration. This lab showed that germinating peas consume more O2 than nongerminating peas. The colder temperature also slowed the rate of oxygen consumption. The oxygen could be clearly seen because of the following reaction

CO2+2KOH à K2O3 +H2O

This reaction gets rid of the CO2 so that it would not affect the readings of oxygen. It is absorbed by KOH to give you a precipitant K2CO3 + H2O. I conclude that the rate of O2 consumption is directly proportional to the respiration rate in that when the rate increases the gas consumption increases. When the gas consumption is low then the rate is low. Organisms go through cellular respiration more proficiently when the body of the organism is comfortable with its outside temp and environment. This lab showed many things affecting the rate of cellular respiration.

AP Biology: CHAPTER 15

THE CHROMOSOMAL BASIS OF INHERITANCE

 

1. Describe some of the pieces of information that scientists discovered that contributed to the

“Chromosome Theory of Inheritance”?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

2. Summarize the Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance.

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

3. Why was Thomas Hunt Morgan’s choice of the fruit fly a good model organism?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

4. Describe Morgan’s first mutant. Why was it so significant from the wild type?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

5. Show the cross P, F1, F2 for the white-eyed male mutant.

6. What happens when we trace the inheritance of traits found on the same chromosome?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

7. Use the diagram to trace the body color and wing shape in this linked two trait cross.

 

8. What is recombination and when does it occur? ___________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

9. How is recombination frequency calculated? _____________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

10. What determines sex in humans? ______________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

11. In what ways are sex-linked traits distinct from autosomal traits? _____________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

12. Why are sex-linked recessive traits more common in human males than females?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

13. How many X chromosomes are typically expressed in humans and cats?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

14. What happens to X chromosomes that are inactivated? _____________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

15. How many Barr bodies would be found in a person with: XXY_____ XO_____ XXX_____.

16. Define each term & and indicate when each occurs.

a. aneuploidy _____________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

b. polyploidy ______________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

17. Identify the each of the alterations of chromosome structure.

18. List and describe a few specific examples of non-disjunctions that occur in humans.

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

19. Describe genomic imprinting and give an example.

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

AP Biology: CHAPTER 16

THE MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE

1. After Morgan and fellow scientists developed the Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance, the

search was on for the chemical mechanism of inheritance. What are the two components of the chromosome?

__________________________________________________________________________

2. From initial logic, which component would be the most likely candidate for the genetic

material and why?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

3. What did Griffith, Avery, and others accomplish with bacteria?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

4. Define transformation. _______________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

5. What did the experiments done by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase show?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

6. What are Chargaff’s rules?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

7. If a species has 35% adenine in its DNA, determine the percent of the other three bases.

__________________________________________________________________________

8. What was the role of Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin in determining the structure of

DNA?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

9. Use the diagram to describe the structure of DNA. Include several comments.

 

10. What is the advantage of the double stranded aspect of the DNA? ____________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

11. Which model of DNA replication is accepted? ____________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

 

12. What happens at the DNA replication fork?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

13. Make a list of the enzymes involved in replication and their role.

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

14. Why does the DNA have to add nucleotides in the 5’ to 3’ direction?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

15. Label the diagram of DNA replication. Include the directions and the terms.

16. Describe the “priming of the DNA” before replication. _______________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

17. List some of the steps involved in DNA repair. ____________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

18. What is the problem that occurs at the ends of the chromosome during replication?

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

19. What is a telomere and its role in cell division. ____________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

20. Why was there no selection pressure for prokaryotes to evolve a telomere-like solution on

their chromosome? _________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

21. Why is telomerase an active area in cancer research? _____________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________