Category: 1st Semester

Chapter 20 AP Objectives

 

Chapter 20    DNA Technology
Objectives
DNA Cloning
1. Explain how advances in recombinant DNA technology have helped scientists study the eukaryotic genome.
2. Describe the natural function of restriction enzymes and explain how they are used in recombinant DNA technology.
3. Explain how the creation of sticky ends by restriction enzymes is useful in producing a recombinant DNA molecule.
4. Outline the procedures for cloning a eukaryotic gene in a bacterial plasmid.
5. Describe techniques that allow identification of recombinant cells that have taken up a gene of interest.
6. Define and distinguish between genomic libraries using plasmids, phages, and cDNA.
7. Describe the role of an expression vector.
8. Describe two advantages of using yeast cells instead of bacteria as hosts for cloning or expressing eukaryotic genes.
9. Describe two techniques to introduce recombinant DNA into eukaryotic cells.
10. Describe the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and explain the advantages and limitations of this procedure.
11. Explain how gel electrophoresis is used to analyze nucleic acids and to distinguish between two alleles of a gene.
12. Describe the process of nucleic acid hybridization.
13. Describe the Southern blotting procedure and explain how it can be used to detect and analyze instances of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP).
14. Explain how RFLP analysis facilitated the process of genomic mapping.
DNA Analysis and Genomics
15. Explain the goals of the Human Genome Project.
16. Explain how linkage mapping, physical mapping, and DNA sequencing each contributed to the genome mapping project.
17. Describe the alternate approach to whole-genome sequencing pursued by J. Craig Venter and the Celera Genomics company.
18. Explain how researchers recognize protein-coding genes within DNA sequences.
19. Describe the surprising results of the Human Genome Project.
20. Explain how the vertebrate genome, including that of humans, generates greater diversity than the genomes of invertebrate organisms.
21. Explain how in vitro mutagenesis and RNA interference help researchers to discover the functions of some genes.
22. Explain the purposes of gene expression studies. Describe the use of DNA microarray assays and explain how they facilitate such studies.
23. Define and compare the fields of proteomics and genomics.
24. Explain the significance of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the study of the human evolution.
Practical Applications of DNA Technology
25. Describe how DNA technology can have medical applications in such areas as the diagnosis of genetic disease, the development of gene therapy, vaccine production, and the development of pharmaceutical products.
26. Explain how DNA technology is used in the forensic sciences.
27. Describe how gene manipulation has practical applications for environmental and agricultural work.
28. Describe how plant genes can be manipulated using the Ti plasmid carried by Agrobacterium as a vector.
29. Explain how DNA technology can be used to improve the nutritional value of crops and to develop plants that can produce pharmaceutical products.
30. Discuss the safety and ethical questions related to recombinant DNA studies and the biotechnology industry.
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Chapter 21 AP Objectives

 

Chapter 21    Genetic Basis of Development
Objectives
From Single Cell to Multicellular Organism
1. List the animals used as models for developmental biology research and provide a rationale for their choice.
2. Distinguish between the patterns of morphogenesis in plants and in animals.
Differential Gene Expression
3. Describe how genomic equivalence was determined for plants and animals.
4. Describe what kinds of changes occur to the genome during differentiation.
5. Describe the general process by which the ewe Dolly and the first mice were cloned.
6. Describe the characteristics of stem cells. Explain their significance to medicine.
7. Distinguish between determination and differentiation. Explain why determination precedes differentiation.
8. Describe the molecular basis of determination.
9. Describe the two sources of information that instruct a cell to express genes at the appropriate time.
Genetic and Cellular Mechanisms of Pattern Formation
10. Describe how Drosophila was used to investigate the basic aspects of pattern formation (axis formation and segmentation).
11. Explain how maternal genes affect polarity and development in Drosophila embryos.
12. Describe how gradients of morphogens may specify the axes of developing Drosophila embryos.
13. Describe how homeotic genes define the anatomical identity of the segments of a developing organism.
14. Describe how the study of nematodes contributed to an understanding of the role of induction in development.
15. Describe how apoptosis functions in normal and abnormal development.
16. Describe how the study of tomatoes has contributed to the understanding of flower development.
17. Describe how the study of Arabidopsis has contributed to the understanding of organ identity in plants.
18. Provide evidence of the conservation of homeobox patterns.

 
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Chapter 3: Biochemistry PowerPoint Worksheet

Chapter 3 Biochemistry of Cells PowerPoint Notes

 

1. What is the most abundant organic compound on Earth?
2. Approximately how much water makes up the cells of organisms?
3. ___________ is known as the universal solvent.

 

4. List 4 properties of water that make it so useful to organisms.

 

 

5. Besides water, what other substance makes up most of the cell?

 

6. ____________ chemistry is the study of carbon compounds.

 

7. Carbon has _______ outer electrons so it can form ___________ bonds by sharing these electrons.

8. Carbon & hydrogen make up compounds called ________________.

 

9. Sketch a simple hydrocarbon with the formula CH4.

 

 

10. Carbon skeletons may be straight _______________, _____________ chains, or ______________ structures.

11. Hydrocarbons in ____________ supply our bodies with energy.

 

12. The _______ of an organic molecule determines its function.

13. ____________ groups give different properties to the organic compound to which they attach.

14. Write the formula for the following functional groups:

a. Hydroxyl

 

b. Carbonyl

 

c. Carboxyl

 

d. Amino

15. Give examples of organic compounds that contain each of the functional groups from question 14.

 

 

16. Large organic molecules are called _______________.

 

17. Polymers are built from smaller subunits called _____________.

 

18. Biologists call polymers _____________________.

 

19. Name 4 examples of polymers found in living things.

 

 

20. Monomers linked together are called ____________.

 

21. The process of linking monomers together is called _______________________.

 

22. Dehydration synthesis links small molecules or monomers together by removing molecules of _____________.

23. Name the process used to break down large polymers into smaller monomers.

 

24. Hydrolysis involves ____________ a molecule of water in order to break bonds.

 

25. Name some foods that contain lots of carbohydrates.

 

26. _________________ are simple sugars.

 

27. Name 3 monosaccharides & give their chemical formula.

 

 

28. Monosaccharides are called hexose sugars because they contain 6 _______________.

 

29. __________ is the simple sugar made by plants, ___________ is the sugar found in fruits, while _______________ is known as “milk sugar”.  Sugars have an __________ ending.

 

30. What are isomers?

 

31. Name 2 isomers.

32. What does aqueous mean?

33. What happens to simple sugars, monosaccharides, when they are put into aqueous solutions inside cells?

 

34. ___________________ serve as fuel for cells. Saccharide means ________________.

 

35. What is a double sugar called?

 

36. How are disaccharides formed? Name the BOND that joins them together.

 

37. Name 3 disaccharides.

 

38. Name the simple sugars that make up each of these disaccharides:

a. Sucrose

b. Maltose

c. Lactose

 

39. Complex carbohydrates are called ________________ & are made of chains of ________________________.

40. Name 3 examples of polysaccharides and tell the shape of each.

 

41. Plants store carbohydrate energy as ____________.

 

42. Name some starchy foods.

 

43. Animals store their carbohydrate energy as __________________.

 

44. Both starch & glycogen are made of monomers of ____________ or glucose.

 

45. Describe cellulose fibers & tell where in plants it is found.

 

 

46. Cellulose makes up __________ in plants and serves as dietary __________ in animals.

47. How are cows able to digest cellulose?

 

48. Since sugars dissolve in water, they are said to be _____________ or water-loving. What functional group makes them water soluble?

49. Lipids are hydrophobic. What does this mean?

 

50. Name 4 examples of lipids and then give 3 functions for lipids in the body.

Examples:

a.

b.

c.

 

51. If the bonds between carbons in a fatty acid are all single bonds, the fatty acid is ___________________.  Sketch a saturated fatty acid.

 

52. If there is a double bond between carbons in a fatty acid, the fatty acid is ___________________. Sketch an unsaturated fatty acid.

 

53. _______________ are the monomers that make up lipids or fats.

 

54. Triglycerides are made of an alcohol called ____________ and 3 ___________ acid chains.

55. ___________ forms the backbone of the fat. Sketch glycerol.

56. Saturated fatty acids are ___________ at room temperature and include __________,

margarine, and _____________.

57. Unsaturated fats in plants exist as ________ or oils at room temperature.

 

58. (a) What process links the 3 fatty acid chains to the glycerol in lipids?

(b) What lipids are in cell membranes?

(c) Sketch and label a phospholipid.

 

 

(d) Phospholipid heads are _____________ and attract water, while the 2 tails are _________ and repel water.

 

59. Lipids called _____________ are made of four, fused rings of carbon.

60. Name 3 steroids found in organisms.

a.

b.

c.

 

61. Proteins are polymers made of monomers called ___________________.

62. How many different amino acids are there?

 

63. Give 3 jobs for proteins in cells.

a.

b.

c.

 

64. What four things are bonded to the central carbon of every amino acid?

 

65. Sketch the structure of an amino acid & label the attached groups.

 

 

 

66. Amino acids are linked together by ____________ synthesis and held together by _____________ bonds.

67. Many proteins act as __________ or biological catalysts.

68. Cells have _____________ of enzymes which may ___________ chemical bonds and ____________ the amount of activation energy needed for the reaction to occur.

 

69. Enzymes have what shape?

 

70. Substrates attach to an enzyme at its ___________ site. When a substrate attaches to the active site the active site changes ________________.  This is called ______________ fit.

71. Can enzymes be reused?

 

72. The linear sequence of amino acids (chain) is the ____________ structure of a protein.

 

73. Protein chains are called __________________.

74. Secondary protein structures occur when proteins ___________ or ___________.

 

75. When polypeptides join together, the _________ groups interact with each other forming the ___________ structure of a protein forms.

76. Proteins take on a _____________ shape in the watery environment inside a cell. This is known as their _______________________ structure. Protein shape is also known as protein _____________________.

 

77. Denaturing a protein involves changing its __________ so it no longer works.

78. Name 2 things that denature proteins.

 

79. (a) What causes sickle cell anemia (disease)?

 

(b) What is the function of the protein hemoglobin in red blood cells?

 

(c) What protein controls blood sugar level?

(d) Insulin causes excess sugar to be stored in the _____________ as ________________.

(e) Proteins in the cell membrane that help cells recognize similar cells are called __________ proteins.

 

80. ___________ acids store hereditary information for making all of the body’s ______________.

 

81. Name the 2 types of nucleic acids.

 

82. What are the monomers for nucleic acids? Sketch a nucleotide.

 

83. Name the 4 bases on DNA.

84. What 2 things make up the sides of DNA?

 

85. DNA is ___________ stranded & coiled to make a shape called the double ____________.

 

86. RNA has __________ sugar instead of DEOXYRIBOSE sugar on DNA

 

87. RNA is a _____________ stranded molecule unlike double stranded DNA.

 

88. On RNA, the base ______________ replaces thymine.

89. _____________ is the cell’s energy molecule.

90. What is the monomer for ATP?

91. What does ATP stand for?

92. How is the nucleotide monomer for ATP DIFFERENT from the nucleotide monomer for nucleic acids?

93. Where is the energy stored in ATP?

94. Which bonds are considered HIGH ENERGY bonds in ATP?

95. When the last phosphate bond is broken, what is released?

96. what is the energy of ATP used for?

97. Besides energy, what two other things are formed when the last phospheta bond of ATP is broken?

98. How can ATP be reformed?

 

 

Chapter 11 – Cell Communication Objectives

 

 

Chapter 11   Cell Communication
Objectives
An Overview of Cell Signaling

1.  Describe the basic signal-transduction pathway used for mating in yeast. Explain why we believe these pathways evolved before the first multicellular organisms appeared on Earth.

2.  Define paracrine signaling and give an example.

3.  Define local regulation and explain why hormones are not local regulators.

4.  Explain how plant and animal hormones travel to target cells.

5.  List and briefly define the three stages of cell signaling.

Signal Reception and the Initiation of Transduction

6.  Describe the nature of a ligand-receptor interaction and state how such interactions initiate a signal-transduction system.

7.  State where signal receptors may be located in target cells.

8.  Compare and contrast G-protein-linked receptors, tyrosine-kinase receptors, and ligand-gated ion channels.

Signal-Transduction Pathways

9.  Describe two advantages of using a multistep pathway in the transduction stage of cell signaling.

10. Explain how the original signal molecule can produce a cellular response when it may not even enter the target cell.

11. Describe how phosphorylation propagates signal information.

12. Explain why a single cell may require hundreds of different protein kinases.

13. Explain how protein phosphatases turn off signal-transduction pathways.

14. Define the term second messenger. Briefly describe the role of these molecules in signaling pathways.

15. Describe how cyclic AMP is formed and how it propagates signal information in target cells.

16. Explain how the cholera bacterium causes the symptoms of cholera by disrupting G-protein-signaling pathways.

17. Describe how the cytosolic concentration of Ca2+ can be altered and how the increased pool of Ca2+ is involved with signal transduction.

Cellular Responses to Signals

18. Describe how signal information is transduced into cellular responses in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus.

19. Describe how signal amplification is accomplished in target cells.

20. Explain why different types of cells may respond differently to the same signal molecule.

21. Explain how scaffolding proteins help to coordinate a cell’s response to incoming signals.

 
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Introduction Notes

Introduction

All Materials © Cmassengale

Study of Life  

  • First life forms arose on Earth more than 3.5 billion years ago  
  • Single-celled, microscopic organisms (living thing) appeared first & floated alone in seas  
  • Over 40 million species (types of organisms) exist with only about 2 million identified 
  • Many organisms are unidentified & new species are still discovered  
  • Biology is the study of all living things and how they interact with each other & their environment  
  • Over long periods of time, species changed or evolved so that new species arose from earlier organisms & came to inhabit almost every part of the earth (bacteria living in thermal vents, parasites living inside another organism, etc.)  
  • Organisms must adapt to their specific environment to survive & reproduce

 

Unifying Themes of Biology 

 The six unifying themes include:  

  1. Cell Structure & Function
  2. Stability & Homeostasis
  3. Reproduction & Inheritance
  4. Evolution
  5. Interdependence of Organisms
  6. Matter, Energy, & Organization

Cell Structure & Function  

  • Cell is the basic unit of structure & function  
  • All organisms are made of one or more cells; Unicellular (one celled) or Multicellular (Composed of more than one cell)  


UNICELLULAR AMOEBA

  • Cells are small but highly organized; they contain specialized structures that carry out the jobs of a cell called organelles  


CELLULAR ORGANELLES

  • There are many different kinds of cells, but all cells have similarities
  • All cells are surrounded by a cell membrane, contain cytoplasm, and have DNA (the genetic information for making new cells or cell structures)  
  • New cells made by unicellular organisms are identical (clones) to the parent cell that produced them – asexual reproduction  
  • Multicellular organisms begin life as one fertilized cell (sexual reproduction), but the cells multiplied and underwent differentiation (changed structure & function) to become many different kinds of cells  

Stability & Homeostasis  

  • All organisms maintain stable internal conditions such as body temperature & water content
  • Stable level of internal conditions called homeostasis  

Reproduction & Inheritance  

  • All organisms reproduce new organisms like themselves by transmitting hereditary material to their offspring  
  • DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is a large molecule containing the hereditary material of the cell


DNA MODEL

  • In unicellular organisms like bacteria, DNA exists as a single loop or chromosome in the cytoplasm  


BACTERIA

  • In multicellular organisms, DNA is enclosed in a membrane known as the nucleus 
  • Genes are short segments of DNA the carry the instructions for a single trait of an organism  
  • DNA of a cell contains all of the genes (instructions) it will ever need  
  •  All body cells have a complete set of DNA (genome), but different types of cells use certain genes from the set; example: Muscle cells have the genes to make thyroxine, but they don’t use these genes  
  • In sexual reproduction, an egg (ovum) is fertilized by a sperm to form a zygote so the new organism is made of cells with hereditary information from both parents  
  • In asexual reproduction, cells copy their DNA & split so all new cells are identical  

Evolution  

  • Populations of organisms change over time or evolve (Theory of Evolution)  


DARWIN – THEORY OF EVOLUTION

  • Natural selection or “survival of the fittest” is the process that drives evolution  
  • Organisms with favorable traits are better able to survive & reproduce  
  • The survival of organisms with favorable traits causes a gradual change in populations of organisms over many generations  
  • Evolution by natural selection is driven by competition for resources such as food, habitat, mates  

Interdependence of Organisms  

  • Ecology is the study of the interaction of organisms with each other and their environment  
  • Sunlight is the ultimate energy for all organisms  
  • Energy from the sun is passed from one organism to another; producers (plants) to herbivore (plant eater) to carnivore (meat eater) to decomposers (break down dead organisms)  


ENERGY FLOW IN A FOOD CHAIN

  • Abiotic (nonliving factors) such as air, water, energy, soil, temperature, & minerals are also needed for survival  
  • Biotic factors include all living things on earth (plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms)  
  • Biosphere supports life & includes the biotic (all organisms) & the abiotic (all nonliving factors) on earth  
  • Organisms respond to their environment by:
    * Fleeing
    * Adapting
    * Dying
  • Most organisms can survive a temporary change, but permanent change can lead to extinction (dinosaurs)  
  • Thousands of species are listed endangered (population so small could become extinct)  
  • Human interference is the main cause for endangerment & extinction
    * Pollution of land, air, and water
    *Hunting for sport, food, and commercial products also threatens the survival of many organisms
    * Clear-cutting rain forests
    * Diverting rivers & lakes
    * Draining wetlands (everglades)
    *Global Warming  
  •   Endangered organisms can be protected & returned to larger population size (American Bison almost wiped out –60 million to 250 in 90 years- now several thousand herds)  


AMERICAN BISON

  • Species is a group of organisms so similar to one another that they can interbreed & produce fertile offspring  
  •  Extinction of any species upsets the balance of nature (Almost extinct Pacific Yew tree found to contain chemical used to treat cancer)  


PACIFIC YEW TREE

Matter, Energy, & Organization  

  • Organisms are highly organized, maintain internal order, & require a constant energy supply
  • Plants & unicellular organisms with chlorophyll capture sunlight through photosynthesis & store it in food to be used by other organisms  
  • Autotrophs or producers use sunlight, water, & carbon dioxide to make glucose (energy rich sugar) & oxygen – photosynthesis  

  • Heterotrophs (consumers) feed on producers or other consumers to get energy & release carbon dioxide  

   Biology affects life in many ways  

  • Biotechnology uses organisms to make products needed by people (human insulin made by bacteria)
  •   Fossils fuels (coal, oil, & natural gas) provide energy & materials such as nylon & polyester  


OIL DRILLING

  • Animal products such as wool, silk, and leather make clothing  
  •  Wood provides energy & shelter for us, but endangers other animals (spotted owl) when forests are cut  
  • New medicines, better water treatment & garbage disposal improves our health
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