Category: 1st Semester

Campbell Problem 9

Molecular Genetics Problem 9
9. What pattern of inheritance would lead a geneticist to suspect that an inherited disorder of cell metabolism is due to a defective mitochondrial gene?

 

The disorder would always be inherited from the mother because the mother’s mitochondrial gene is the only one that survives when the zygote is formed. The gamete from the mother contains all the information. The head of the father’s sperm is the only part that survives during fertilization. The tail of the sperm containing the male’s mitochondria (an their genes) is lost when the zygote begins development. Thus it is only from the mother that the disorder can be inherited.

 

Do Brain Cells Run Out of Gas?
Within each cell reside hundreds of tiny gas stations known as mitochondria. These essential organelles generate a large share of the fuel, a molecule called ATP, that cells use to power their biological machinery. There’s a suspicion, admittedly controversial, that problems with these energy-supplying mitochondria contribute to the progression of age-related neurodegenerative illnesses such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s diseases, says Douglas C. Wallace of Emory University School of Medicine in Atlanta. In 1993, Wallace and his colleagues reported on comparisons of the mitochondrial DNA of Alzheimer’s patients and that of people without Alzheimer’s, who served as controls. This genetic material, which contains all the instructions necessary for mitochondria to function and replicate, is independent of the DNA found in a cell’s nucleus. Wallace’s group discovered that a particular mutation in mitochondrial DNA showed up in more than 5 percent of Alzheimer’s patients but in less than 1 percent of a random group of people with-out the disease. Studies on animals support the importance of mitochondria in brain disorders. When investigators destroy mitochondria or inhibit the activity of enzymes crucial to mitochondrial function in rats or mice, the rodents develop behavioral or physical attributes of Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s, and Parkinson’s diseases. &emdash; J. Travis

Science News: Aug. 5 • Vol. 148, No. 6

 

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Cell Cycle & Division

 

 

Cell Cycle & Division
All Materials © Cmassengale

 

Cell Division:

  • All cells are derived from preexisting cells (Cell Theory)
  • Cell division is the process by which cells produce new cells
  • Cell division differs in prokaryotes (bacteria) and eukaryotes (protists, fungi, plants, & animals)
  • Some tissues must be repaired often such as the lining of gut, white blood cells, skin cells with a short lifespan 
  • Other cells do not divide at all after birth such as muscle & nerve 

Reasons for Cell Division:

  • Cell growth
  • Repair & replacement of damaged cell parts
  • Reproduction of the species

Copying DNA: 

  • Since the instructions for making cell parts are encoded in the DNA, each new cell must get a complete set of the DNA molecules
  • This requires that the DNA be copied (replicated, duplicated) before cell division

Replication process

Chromosomes & Their Structure:

  • The plans for making cells are coded in DNA
  • DNA, deoxyribose nucleic acid, is a long thin molecule that stores genetic information
  • DNA in a human cell is estimated to consist of six billion pairs of nucleotides
  • DNA is organized into giant molecules called chromosomes
  • Chromosomes are made of protein & a long, single, tightly-coiled DNA molecule visible only when the cell divides
  • When a cell is not dividing the DNA is less visible & is called chromatin
  • DNA in eukaryotic cells wraps tightly around proteins called histones to help pack the DNA during cell division
  • Nonhistone proteins help control the activity of specific DNA genes
  • Kinetochore proteins bind to centromere and attach chromosome to the spindle in mitosis
  • Centromeres hold duplicated chromosomes together before they are separated in mitosis
  • Telomeres are the ends of chromosomes which are important in cell aging
  • When DNA makes copies of itself before cell division, each half of the chromosome is called a sister chromatid

  • DNA of prokaryotes (bacteria) is one, circular chromosome attached to the inside of the cell membrane

Chromosome Numbers:

  • Humans somatic or body cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes or 46 chromosomes (diploid or 2n number)
  • The 2 chromatids of a chromosome pair are called homologues (have genes for the same trait at the same location)


Homologs

  • Human reproductive cells or gametes (sperms & eggs) have one set or 23 chromosomes (haploid or n number)
  • Every organism has a specific chromosome number

 

Organism Chromosome Number (2n)
Human 46
Fruit fly 8
Lettuce 14
Goldfish 94

 

  • Fertilization, joining of the egg & sperm, restores the diploid chromosome number in the zygote (fertilized egg cell)
  • Sex chromosomes, either X or Y, determine the sex of the organism
  • Two X chromosomes, XX, will be female and XY will be male
  • All other chromosomes, except X & Y, are called autosomes
  • Chromosomes from a cell may be arranged in pairs by size starting with the longest pair and ending with the sex chromosomes to make a karyotype
  • A human karyotype has 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes (23 total)


Human Male Karyotype

Genes:

  • A section of DNA which codes for a protein is called a gene
  • Each gene codes for one protein
  • Humans have approximately 50,000 genes or 2000 per chromosome
  • About 95% of the DNA in chromosome is “junk” that does not code for any proteins

Cell Cycle:

  • Cells go through phases or a cell cycle during their life before they divide to form new cells 
  • The cell cycle includes 2 main parts — interphase, and cell division
  • Cell division includes mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm)
  • Interphase is the longest part of a cell’s life cycle and is called the “resting stage” because the cell isn’t dividing
  • Cells grow, develop, & carry on all their normal metabolic functions during interphase
  • Interphase consists of 3 parts — G1, S, & G2phases

Interphase:

  • G1 or 1st Growth Phase occurs after a cell has undergone cell division
  • Cells mature & increase in size by making more cytoplasm & organelles while carrying normal metabolic activities in G1 
  • S or Synthesis Phase follows  G1  and the genetic material of the cell (DNA) is copied or replicated 

  • G2 or 2nd Growth Phase occurs after S Phase and the cell makes all the structures needed to divide

Cell division in Prokaryotes:

  • Prokaryotes such as bacteria do not have a nucleus
  • Prokaryotes divide into two identical new cells by the process of binary fission
  • Binary fission is an asexual method of reproduction
  • In binary fission,  the chromosome, attached to cell membrane, makes a copy of itself and the cell grows to about twice its normal size
  • Next, a cell wall forms between the chromosomes & the parent cell splits into 2 new identical daughter cells (clones)


Cell Division in Eukaryotes:

  • Eukaryotes have a nucleus & membrane-bound organelles which must be copied exactly so the 2 new cells formed from division will be exactly alike
  • The original parent cell & 2 new daughter cells must have identical chromosomes
  • DNA is copied in the S phase of the cell cycle & organelles, found in the cytoplasm,  are copied in the Growth phases
  • Both the nucleus (mitosis) and the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) must be divided during cell division in eukaryotes

Stages of Mitosis:

  • Division of the nucleus or mitosis occurs first
  • Mitosis is an asexual method of reproduction
  • Mitosis consists of 4 stages — Prophase, Metaphase, anaphase, & Telophase

  • Prophase:
    • Chromosomes become visible when they condense into sister chromatids
    • Sister chromatids attach to each other by the centromere
    • Centrioles in animal cells move to opposite ends of cell
    • Spindle forms from centriole (animals) or microtubules (plants)
    • Kinetochore fibers of spindle attach to centromere
    • Polar fibers of spindle extend across cell from pole to pole
    • Nuclear membrane dissolves
    • Nucleolus disintegrates
  • Metaphase:
    • Chromosomes line up in center or equator of the cell attached to kinetochore fibers of the spindle
  • Anaphase:
    • Kinetochore fibers attached to the centromere pull the sister chromatids apart
    • Chromosomes move toward opposite ends of cell
  • Telophase:
    • Nuclear membrane forms at each end of the cell around the chromosomes
    • Nucleolus reform
    • Chromosomes become less tightly coiled & appear as chromatin again
    • Cytokinesis begins

Cytokinesis:

  • Cytoplasm of the cell and its organelles separate into 2 new daughter cells
  • In animals, a groove called the cleavage furrow forms pinching the parent cell in two

  • In plants, a cell plate forms down the middle of the cell where the new cell wall will be

Summary of Mitosis:

 

 
 
 Interphase

 

  1. Cell matures & carries on normal activities
  2. DNA copied & appears as chromatin
  3. Nucleolus visible
  Early Prophase  

 

  1. Chromosomes condense & become visible
  2. Centrioles separate & spindle starts forming
 
 Late Prophase

  1. Spindle forms with aster at each pole
  2. Nuclear membrane & nucleolus disintegrate
  3. Centromere of chromosomes attaches to spindle fibers
  Metaphase

  1. Chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell attached to kinetochore fibers of spindle
 Anaphase

  1. Centromeres split apart
  2. Homologs move to opposite poles of the cell
  Telophase/Cytokinesis  

  1. Nuclear membrane & nucleolus reform
  2. Cell pinches into 2 cells in animals
  3. In plants, a cell plate separates the 2 new cells

 

Cancer is Uncontrolled Mitosis:

  • Mitosis must be controlled, otherwise growth will occur without limit (cancer)
  • Control is by special proteins produced by oncogenes
  • Mutations in control proteins can cause cancer

Meiosis & Sexual Reproduction

  • Reduces the number of chromosomes in new cells to half the number in the original cell
  • New cells have a single copy of chromosomes (23 total) but are not identical to each other or the original parent cell
  • Used for making gametes ( sperm and eggs) with the haploid or n number
  • In meiosis, cells divide twice after a single DNA duplication
  • Meiosis I separates homologs & the Meiosis II separates sister chromatids
  • Meiosis I stages are Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, & Telophase I
  • Meiosis II stages are Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, & Telophase II
  • Produces 4 haploid cells or gametes
  • When a sperm fertilizes an egg to form a zygote, the diploid number of chromosomes is restored (23 + 23 = 46)
  • Egg cells or ova (ovum, singular) are larger , nonmotile cells
  • Gametoogenesis is meiosis producing eggs & occurs in the female’s ovaries

 


Oogenesis

  • Sperms contain less cytoplasm so they’re smaller & have a flagellum to swim to the egg
  • Spermatogenesis is meiosis producing sperm cells & occurs in the testes

 


Spermatogenesis

Meiosis I:

  • The cell that undergoes Meiosis I is a primary spermatocyte or oocyte
  • Prophase I:
    • Chromosomes coil tightly & are visible
    • Nuclear membrane & nucleolus disintegrate
    • Spindle forms
    • Synapsis (joining) of homologous chromosomes occurs making tetrads
    • Kinetochore fiber forms on each chromosome
    • Chromosomes in tetrad exchange fragments by a process called crossing over

  • Metaphase I:
    • Tetrads become aligned in the center of the cell attached to spindle fibers
  • Anaphase I:
    • Homologous chromosomes separate
  • Telophase I:
    • May not occur in all species
    • Cytokinesis occurs producing 2 cells
    • In females,  2nd cell in females is called the 1st Polar Body
    • 1st Polar Body dies due to uneven splitting of the cytoplasm

  • Prophase II:
    • Cells called Secondary Spermatocytes or oocytes
    • DNA is not copied before cell divides
    • Chromatids attach to spindle fiber
  • Metaphase II:
    • Chromosomes become aligned in the center of the cell attached to spindle fibers
  • Anaphase II:
    • Sister chromatids separate randomly
    • Called independent assortment
  • Telophase I:
    • Cytokinesis occurs producing 4 cells in males called spermatids
    • Spermatids mature & form flagellum to become sperm
    • Cytokinesis in females produces a 2nd Polar Body that dies and an ootid 
    • Ootids mature to become ovum or egg

Asexual & Sexual reproduction:

  • Evolution is the slow process of change in living populations over time
  • Variations are differences that occur due to crossing-over among members of a sexually reproducing population
  • Variations are important to the survival of individuals in a population (some must survive to reproduce)
  • Asexually reproducing organisms rarely show variations because the organisms have identical genes

Catalase Bi Sample Lab 2

 

 

Enzyme Rate of Reaction for Catalase

 

Introduction:
Life would not be possible without chemical reactions. Chemical reactions are responsible for speeding up the process. A chemical reaction is the process of breaking chemical bonds, forming new bonds or both. The four things that can speed up a chemical reaction is heat, increasing the concentration of reactants, decreasing the concentration of products, and enzymes. Enzyme is a catalase, most the time a protein. Enzymes can control the rate of a reaction, and they also lower activation energy. Enzymes are important in regulating chemical pathways, synthesizing materials needed by cells, releasing energy, and transferring information. Enzymes are involved in digestion, respiration, vision, movement, and thought. There are several things that can affect the function of enzymes like temperature, the pH, and the amount of reactant or product. Simple cells may have as many as 2000 different enzymes, each one catalyzing a different reaction. In this particular lab, your hands act as the enzyme “Catalase”. This enzyme, which is found in your cells, splits hydrogen peroxide, a byproduct made by your cells during cellular respiration,  into water and oxygen.

 

Hypothesis:
If  time is increased, then more hydrogen peroxide molecules will be split into water and oxygen

 

Materials:
The materials used in this lab were pencils, scissors, envelope, 100 paper hydrogen peroxide molecules, and a watch with a second hand so that a person would be able to keep time for the person tearing the strips.

 

Methods:
Take a paper template and cut out 100 hydrogen peroxide molecules. Place the cut out pieces into an envelope. Then have a person act as a catalase and take one piece of the paper molecules out of the envelope at a time and rip it in two and  place the pieces back into the envelope. Have a person hold the envelope person, while another student keeps track of the “tearing” time intervals (10, 20, 30 ,60, and 60 seconds). Count how many molecules are  ripped at the end of each time interval and record this number in your data table. When all time intervals and counts are completed, use the formula below to figure the reaction rate for catalase. Record this rate in  your data table.
M2 – M1 = reaction rate
T2 – T1

Results:

 

 

Time in seconds

  

Ripped Hydrogen Peroxide Molecules

  

Rate of reaction
 

0-10

 3 .3
 

10-30

 10 .35
 

30-60

 24 .47
 

60-120

 63 .65
 

120-180

 124 1.02

 

1. What is an enzyme? What are its functions in living things?
Enzymes are proteins in living systems. Enzymes can control the rate of a reaction, and they lower activation energy.

 

2. Name several things things that can affect the function of an enzyme?
Temperature, the amount of reactant or product and the pH.

3. Write the chemical equation for the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide by the enzyme catalase.
hydrogen peroxide + catalase yields water + oxygen

4. An enzyme’s efficiency increases with greater substrate concentration, but only up to a point. Why?
all of the active sites of the enzymes become filled with hydrogen peroxide molecules

 

5. If you were allowed to continue this lab and rip hydrogen peroxide molecules for 240 and 300 seconds. What would happen to the rate of reaction and why would this happen?
It would increase.

 

6. What can you say about the length of time and the rate of the reaction?
The less time, the more the reaction rate is lowered, and the more time, the more the reaction rate is higher.

 

7. What would happen to the rate of reaction if you remove the water  and oxygen molecules as soon as they are produced?
It would be faster.

 

Error Analysis:
All pieces must be returned to the envelope each time interval to correctly simulate what occurs within a cell.

 

Discussion and Conclusion:
As the time intervals increased, the reaction rate of catalase increased also. In a living cell, more hydrogen peroxide would be broken down by catalase over a longer period of time.

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Catalase Lab Sample 1

 

 

Enzyme Rate of Reaction for Catalase

 

Introduction:
Enzymes are an important part of life that regulate chemical reactions with in the body. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in four different ways, one way is heat, another is increasing the rate of reactants, the third way is decreasing the amount of products and the fourth way is enzymes, which speed up reaction without themselves being used up. Enzymes are also involved in digestion, respiration, reproduction, vision, movement, thought, and also in the productions of other enzymes. Simple cells may have as many as 2000 enzymes with each one catalyzing a different reaction. An enzyme can speed up a reaction making it 10, 000,000,000 times faster. An enzyme is a catalyst. A catalyst is a chemical that reduces the amount of activation interim needed for a reaction. Without enzymes a reaction would take much longer than if it had and enzyme. Enzymes also the control the rate and direction of the reaction.
Without catalysts chemical reactions would take much longer that the average human life expectancy. So that would mean that in 76 years only a couple chemical reactions would take place. Since our bodies have enzymes though hundreds of chemical reactions a day. If our bodies didn’t have catalysts our bodily cells couldn’t function. Some bacteria, however, possess a defense mechanism which can minimize the harm done by the two compounds. These resistant bacteria use two enzymes to catalyze the conversion of hydrogen peroxide  back into diatomic oxygen and water. One of these enzymes is catalase and its presence can be detected by a simple test. The catalase test involves adding hydrogen peroxide to a cultures sample or an agar slant.

 

Hypothesis:
The reaction rate of catalase splitting hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen will increase over time.

Materials:
The materials used consisted of 100 paper H2O2 molecules, a data table, paper, pencil, calculator, scissors, watch with a second hand, and an enzyme rate of reaction catalase worksheet.

Methods:
Cut out 100 hydrogen peroxide paper molecules. Double check to make sure there are only 100 paper molecules and place them in an envelope. Then one person will keep track of the time while another person acts as a catalase and tears the paper hydrogen peroxide molecules in half. The torn paper molecules should be returned to the envelope each time. Another person times the person acting as the catalase.  The time intervals in which the paper molecules are to be ripped are 10 seconds, 20 seconds, 30 seconds, and two different 60second periods of time. The results should be  recorded in a data table. The reaction rate for catalase is figured using the formula:
M2 – M1 = Reaction Rate
T2  –  T1

 

Results:

 

 

Time in Seconds Ripped H2O2 Molecules Rate of Reaction
0-10 5 .5
10-30 13 .4
30-60 31 .6
60-120 61 .5
120-180 91 .5

 

1. What is an enzyme? What are its functions in living things?
chemicals that reduce the amount of activation energy needed for reactions to occur; they are proteins in cells that control metabolic reactions

 

2. Name several things that can affect the functioning of an enzyme.
temperature, pH, and the amount of reactant or product

 

3. Write the chemical equation for the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide by the enzyme catalase.
H2O2   +   Catalase –>  H2O  + O2

 

4. An enzyme’s efficiency increases with greater substrate concentration, but only up to a point. Why?
once all active sites are filled, the enzyme’s reaction rate won’t continue increasing

 

5. If you were allowed to continue this lab and rip hydrogen peroxide molecules for 240 and 300 seconds, what would happen to the reaction rate and why would this happen?
there would be more molecules ripped because of the increased amount of time

 

6. What can you say about the length of time and the reaction rate?
The more time available, the faster the reaction will occur.

 

7. What would happen to the reaction rate if you removed the water and oxygen molecules as soon as they were produced?
The rate of reaction would go even faster

 

Error Analysis:
The counting of the time  may have been off a couple of seconds.

 

Discussion and Conclusion:
The data shows that the more time there is, the more hydrogen peroxide molecules will be ripped. The catalase in the lab ripped about 6 molecules every 5 seconds. The same thing occurs in a cell as more hydrogen peroxide is produced, catalase speeds up breaking down this waste into water and oxygen.

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