Category: Curriculum Map

Chapter 7 – A Tour of the Cell Objectives

 

 

Chapter 7   Membrane Structure & Function
Objectives
Membrane Structure

1.  Explain why phospholipids are amphipathic molecules.

2.  Explain what freeze-fracture techniques reveal about the arrangement of proteins in membranes.

3.  Describe the fluidity of the components of a cell membrane and explain how membrane fluidity is influenced by temperature and membrane composition.

4.  Explain how cholesterol resists changes in membrane fluidity with temperature change.

Traffic Across Membranes

5.  Distinguish between peripheral and integral membrane proteins.

6.  List six major functions of membrane proteins.

7.  Explain the role of membrane carbohydrates in cell-cell recognition.

8.  Explain how hydrophobic molecules cross cell membranes.

9.  Distinguish between channel proteins and carrier proteins.

10. Define diffusion. Explain why diffusion is a spontaneous process.

11. Explain why a concentration gradient of a substance across a membrane represents potential energy.

12. Distinguish among hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions.

13. Define osmosis and predict the direction of water movement based on differences in solute concentrations.

14. Describe how living cells with and without cell walls regulate water balance.

15. Explain how transport proteins facilitate diffusion.

16. Distinguish among osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and active transport.

17. Describe the two forces that combine to produce an electrochemical gradient.

18. Explain how an electrogenic pump creates voltage across a membrane.

19. Describe the process of cotransport.

20. Explain how large molecules are transported across a cell membrane.

21.       Distinguish between pinocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis.

 
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Chapter 46 AP Obj Animal Reproduction

 

 

Chapter 46   Animal Reproduction
Objectives
Overview of Animal Reproduction
1. Distinguish between asexual and sexual reproduction.
2. List and describe four mechanisms of asexual reproduction.
3. Describe several adaptive advantages of asexual reproduction. Discuss the conditions that may favor the occurrence of asexual reproduction.
4. Explain the advantages of periodic reproduction. Describe factors that may control the timing of reproductive events.
5. Describe an example of an animal life cycle that alternates between asexual and sexual reproduction.
6. Define parthenogenesis and describe the conditions that favor its occurrence. Note examples of invertebrate and vertebrate species that use this form of reproduction.
7. Explain how hermaphroditism may be advantageous in sessile or burrowing animals that have difficulty encountering a member of the opposite sex.
8. Distinguish between male-first and female-first sequential hermaphroditism. Note the adaptive advantages of these reproductive systems.
Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction
9. Describe mechanisms that increase the probability that mature sperm will encounter fertile eggs of the same species in organisms that use external fertilization.
10. Explain the function of pheromones in mate attraction.
11. Compare reproductive systems using internal and external fertilization on the basis of the relative number of zygotes and protection of the embryos.
12. List and describe various methods of egg and embryo protection.
13. Compare the reproductive systems of a polychaete worm, a parasitic flatworm, an insect, a common nonmammalian vertebrate, and a mammal.
Mammalian Reproduction
14. Using a diagram, identify and give the function of each component of the reproductive system of the human male.
15. Using a diagram, identify and give the function of each component of the reproductive system of the human female.
16. Describe the two physiological reactions common to sexual arousal in both sexes.
17. Describe the four phases of the sexual response cycle.
18. Compare menstrual cycles and estrous cycles.
19. Describe the stages of the human female reproductive cycle.
20. Explain how the uterine cycle and ovarian cycle are synchronized in female mammals. Note in detail the functions of the hormones involved.
21. Describe human oogenesis.
22. Describe spermatogenesis and the structure and function of mature sperm.
23. Describe three major differences between oogenesis and spermatogenesis.
24. Describe human menopause. Describe a possible evolutionary explanation for human menopause.
25. Describe the influence of androgens on primary and secondary sex characteristics and behavior.
26. Compare the patterns of hormone secretion and reproductive events in male and female mammals.
27. Define conception, gestation, and parturition.
28. Compare the length of pregnancies in humans, rodents, dogs, cows, and elephants.
29. Describe the changes that occur in the mother and the developing embryo during each trimester of a human pregnancy.
30. Explain the role of embryonic hormones during the first few months of pregnancy.
31. Describe the stages of parturition.
32. Describe the control of lactation.
33. Describe mechanisms that may help prevent the motherÕs immune system from rejecting the developing embryo.
34. List the various methods of contraception and explain how each works.
35. Describe techniques that allow us to learn about the health and genetics of a fetus.
36. Explain how and when in vitro fertilization, zygote intrafallopian transfer, and gamete intrafallopian transfer may be used.
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Chapter 47 AP Obj Animal Development

 

 

Chapter 47    Animal Development
Objectives
The Stages of Embryonic Development in Animals
1. Compare the concepts of preformation and epigenesis.
2. List the two functions of fertilization.
3. Describe the acrosomal reaction and explain how it ensures that gametes are conspecific.
4. Describe the cortical reaction.
5. Explain how the fast and slow blocks to polyspermy function sequentially to prevent multiple sperm from fertilizing the egg.
6. Describe the changes that occur in an activated egg and explain the importance of cytoplasmic materials to egg activation.
7. Compare fertilization in a sea urchin and in a mammal.
8. Describe the general process of cleavage.
9. Explain the importance of embryo polarity during cleavage. Compare the characteristics of the animal hemisphere, vegetal hemisphere, and gray crescent in amphibian embryos.
10. Describe the formation of a blastula in sea urchin, amphibian, and bird embryos. Distinguish among meroblastic cleavage, holoblastic cleavage, and the formation of the blastoderm.
11. Describe the product of cleavage in an insect embryo.
12. Describe the process of gastrulation and explain its importance. Explain how this process rearranges the embryo. List adult structures derived from each of the primary germ layers.
13. Compare gastrulation in a sea urchin, a frog, and a chick.
14. Describe the formation of the notochord, neural tube, and somites in a frog.
15. Describe the significance and fate of neural crest cells. Explain why neural crest cells have been called a “fourth germ layer.”
16. List and explain the functions of the extraembryonic membranes in reptile eggs.
17. Describe the events of cleavage in a mammalian embryo. Explain the significance of the inner cell mass.
18. Explain the role of the trophoblast in implantation of a human embryo.
19. Explain the functions of the extraembryonic membranes in mammalian development.
The Cellular and Molecular Basis of Morphogenesis and Differentiation in Animals
20. Describe the significance of changes in cell shape and cell position during embryonic development. Explain how these cellular processes occur. Describe the process of convergent extension.
21. Describe the role of the extracellular matrix in embryonic development.
22. Describe the locations and functions of cell adhesion molecules.
23. Describe the two general principles that integrate our knowledge of the genetic and cellular mechanisms underlying differentiation.
24. Describe the process of fate mapping and the significance of fate maps.
25. Describe the two important conclusions that have resulted from the experimental manipulation of parts of embryos and the use of fate maps.
26. Explain how the three body axes are established in early amphibian and chick development.
27. Explain the significance of SpemannÕs organizer in amphibian development.
28. Explain what is known about the molecular basis of induction.
29. Explain pattern formation in a developing chick limb, including the roles of the apical ectodermal ridge and the zone of polarizing activity.
30. Explain how a limb bud is directed to develop into either a forelimb or a hind limb.
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Chapter 45 AP Obj Chemical Signals

 

 

Chapter 45    Chemical Signals in Animals
Objectives
An Introduction to Regulatory Systems
1. Compare the response times of the two major systems of internal communication: the nervous system and the endocrine system.
2. Explain how neurosecretory cells, epinephrine, and control of day/night cycles illustrate the integration of the endocrine and nervous systems.
3. Describe the organization of a stimulus, receptor, control center, efferent signal, and effector in a simple endocrine pathway.
4. Describe an example of a negative feedback loop in an endocrine pathway involved in maintaining homeostasis.
5. Explain why the neurohormone pathway that regulates the release of milk by a nursing mother is an example of positive feedback.
Chemical Signals and Their Modes of Action
6. List the three major classes of molecules that function as hormones in vertebrates.
7. Name the three key events involved in signaling by vertebrate hormones.
8. Explain what changes may be triggered by a signal transduction pathway initiated by the binding of a water-soluble hormone to a receptor in the plasma membrane of a target cell.
9. Discuss how and why different target cells exposed to the same hormone may respond in different ways.
10. Describe the nature and location of intracellular receptors for hormones that pass easily through cell membranes. Explain how their role compares to the signal-transduction pathway noted above, and describe the changes they are likely to trigger within the target cell.
11. Explain the role of local regulators in paracrine signaling. Describe the diverse functions of cytokines, growth factors, nitric oxide, and prostaglandins.
The Vertebrate Endocrine System
12. Explain how the hypothalamus and pituitary glands interact and how they coordinate the endocrine system.
13. Describe the location of the pituitary. List and explain the functions of the hormones released from the anterior and posterior lobes.
14. Explain the role of tropic hormones in coordinating endocrine signaling throughout the body. Distinguish between releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones.
15. List the hormones of the thyroid gland and explain their roles in development and metabolism. Explain the causes and symptoms of hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and goiter.
16. Note the location of the parathyroid glands and describe the hormonal control of calcium homeostasis.
17. Distinguish between alpha and beta cells in the pancreas and explain how their antagonistic hormones (insulin and glucagon) regulate carbohydrate metabolism.
18. Distinguish between type I diabetes mellitus and type II diabetes mellitus.
19. List the hormones of the adrenal medulla, describe their functions, and explain how their secretions are controlled.
20. List the hormones of the adrenal cortex and describe their functions.
21. List the hormones of three categories of steroid hormones produced by the gonads. Describe variations in their production between the sexes. Note the functions of each category of steroid and explain how secretions are controlled.
22. Describe several examples of invertebrate hormones that function in the control of reproduction and development.
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Chapter 48 AP Obj Nervous Systems

 

 

Chapter 48     Nervous Systems
Objectives
An Overview of Nervous Systems
1. Compare and contrast the nervous systems of the following animals and explain how variations in design and complexity relate to their phylogeny, natural history, and habitat: hydra, sea star, planarian, insect, squid, and vertebrate.
2. Name the three stages in the processing of information by nervous systems.
3. Distinguish among sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.
4. List and describe the major parts of a neuron and explain the function of each.
5. Describe the function of astrocytes, radial glia, oligodendrocytes, and Schwann cells.
The Nature of Nerve Signals
6. Define a membrane potential and a resting potential.
7. Describe the factors that contribute to a membrane potential.
8. Explain why the membrane potential of a resting neuron is typically around 260 to 280 mV.
9. Explain the role of the sodium-potassium pump in maintaining the resting potential.
10. Distinguish between gated and ungated ion channels and among stretch-gated ion channels, ligand-gated ion channels, and voltage-gated ion channels.
11. Define a graded potential and explain how it is different from a resting potential or an action potential.
12. Describe the characteristics of an action potential. Explain the role of voltage-gated ion channels in this process.
13. Describe the two main factors that underlie the repolarizing phase of the action potential.
14. Define the refractory period.
15. Explain how an action potential is propagated along an axon.
16. Describe the factors that affect the speed of action potentials along an axon and describe adaptations that increase the speed of propagation. Describe saltatory conduction.
17. Compare an electrical synapse and a chemical synapse.
18. Describe the structures of a chemical synapse and explain how they transmit an action potential from one cell to another.
19. Explain how excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) affect the postsynaptic membrane potential.
20. Define summation and distinguish between temporal and spatial summation. Explain how summation applies to EPSPs and IPSPs.
21. Explain the role of the axon hillock.
22. Describe the role of signal transduction pathways in indirect synaptic transmission.
23. Describe the specific properties of the neurotransmitters acetylcholine and biogenic amines.
24. Identify and describe the functions of the four amino acids and several neuropeptides that work as neurotransmitters.
25. Explain how endorphins function as natural analgesics.
26. Describe the roles of nitric oxide and carbon monoxide as local regulators.
Vertebrate Nervous Systems
27. Compare the structures and functions of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
28. Distinguish between the functions of the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system.
29. Describe the embryonic development of the vertebrate brain.
30. Describe the structures and functions of the following brain regions: medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, cerebellum, thalamus, epithalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebrum.
31. Describe the specific functions of the reticular system.
32. Explain how the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) function as a mammalian biological clock.
33. Relate the specific regions of the cerebrum to their functions.
34. Distinguish between the functions of the left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum.
35. Describe the specific functions of the brain regions associated with language, speech, emotions, memory, and learning.
36. Explain the possible role of long-term potentiation in memory storage and learning in the vertebrate brain.
37. Describe our current understanding of human consciousness.
38. Explain how research on stem cells and neural development may lead to new treatments for injuries and disease.
39. Describe current treatments for schizophrenia.
40. Distinguish between bipolar disorder and major depression.
41. Describe the symptoms and brain pathology that characterize Alzheimer’s disease. Discuss possible treatments for this disease.
42. Explain the cause of Parkinson’s disease.
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