Curriculum Map 70 - BIOLOGY JUNCTION

Protist Unrevised Notes B1

Algae and Fungal-like Protists

Characteristics:

Algae are autotrophic protists that have chloroplasts and produce their own carbohydrates by photosynthesis
In the past, algae was classified in the plant Kingdom, however, algae lack tissue differentiation and have no true roots, stems, or leaves
The reproductive structures of algae also differ from those of plants, because they form gametes in single-celled gametangia, or gamete chambers
Often times, algal cells contain pyrenoids, organelles that synthesize and store starch.

Structure:

The body portion of an alga is called a thallus; the thallus is usually haploid
Four types of algae are recognized: unicellular, colonial, filamentous, and multicellular
·        Unicellular algae have a structure that consists of a single cell; most unicellular algae are aquatic organisms that compose the phytoplankton, a population of photosynthetic organisms that forms the foundation of aquatic food chains.
·        Colonial algae, such as Volvox, have a structure that consists of groups of cells acting in a coordinated manner.
·        Some of the cells in colonial algae become specialized; this allows them to move, feed, and reproduce efficiently.
·        Filamentous algae, such as Spirogyra, have a slender, rod-shaped thallus composed of rows of cells joined end to end; other species of filamentous algae have specialized structures that anchor the thallus to the ocean bottom.
·        Multinuclear algae often have a large, complex thallus; Macrocystis is among the largest multicellular algae.

Classification
· Algae are classified into 7 phyla, based on color, type of chlorophyll, form of food-storage substance, and cell wall composition.

Reproduction
·        Many species of algae reproduce sexually and asexually
·    Sexual reproduction in algae is often triggered by environmental stress
·        During asexual reproduction, the algae first absorbs its flagellum, then the haploid cell divides mitotically up to three times, and from two to eight haploid flagellated cells called zoospores develop within the parent cell, lastly, the asexual reproductive cells break out of the parent cell, disperse, and eventually grow to full size.
·        Sexual reproduction begins by haploid cells dividing mitotically to produce either “plus” or “minus” gametes.
·        A plus gamete and a minus gamete come into contact with one another and shed their cell walls, then they fuse and form a diploid zygote, which develops a thick protective wall; this resting stage of a zygote is called a zygospore.
·        A zygospore can withstand bad environmental conditions; during the bad environmental condition, the thick wall opens and the living zoospore emerges.

Reproduction in Multicellular Algae
·        The male unicellular gametangium, called an antheridium, produces sperm and the female unicellular gametangium, called an oogonium, produces an egg.
·        The antheridium releases sperm into the surrounding water, where they swim to the female egg and enter through small spores.
·        After fertilization, the resulting zygote is released from the female egg and forms a thick-walled, resting spore; the diploid undergoes meiosis, forming zoospores that are released into the water; the zoospore settles and divides to form a rootlike holdfast, and the others divide and form a new filament.
·        The leaflike algae Ulva has a sexual reproductive cycle that is characterized by a pattern called alternation of generations; a life cycle that exhibits alternation of generations has two distinct multicellular phases- a haploid, gamete-producing phase called a gametophyte and a diploid, spore-producing phase called a sporophyte.
·        The adult sporophyte has reproductive cells called sporangia, which produce haploid zoospore by meiosis.

Algal-Like Protists

Phylum Chlorophyta
· The phylum Chlorophyta contains more than 7,000 identified species of organisms called green algae and members of this phylum have an amazing number of forms and reproductive methods and their body structures range from single cells and colonial forms to multicellular filaments and sheets.

Phylum Phaeophyta
·        The phylum Phaeophyta contains 1,500 species of organisms called brown algae; brown algae is mostly marine and plantlike organisms called seaweed’s and kelps, they are common along rocky coasts where ocean water is cool.
·        The brown algae contain chlorophylls a and c and a large amount of pigment called fucoxanthin, which give the algae its brown color.
·        The food brown algae produces are stored as laminarin, a carbohydrate with glucose units that are linked differently than those in starch.
·        All brown algae are multicellular; the largest brown alga is the Macrocystis.
·        The thallus is anchored to the ocean bottom by a rootlike holdfast; the stemlike portion of the alga is called the stipe and the leaflike region, modified to capture sunlight for photosynthesis is called the blade.
·        The cell walls of the Macrocystis contain alginate, an alginic acid that is used in cosmetics and various drugs, as food, and as a stabilizer in most ice creams.

Phylum Rhodophyta
·        The phylum Rhodophyta contains 4,000 species of organisms called red algae.
·        Red algae contain chlorophyll a and pigments called phycobilins, which play an important role in absorbing light for photosynthesis.
·        Phycobilins can absorb the wavelengths of light that penetrate deep into the water; they make it possible for red algae to live in depths where alga pigments cannot survive.
·        Certain species of red algae have cell walls that are coated with a sticky substance called carageenan, which is a polysaccharide.
·        Agar, which is used as a gel-forming base for culturing microbes, is also extracted from the cell wall of red algae.

Bacillariophyta
·        The phylum Bacillariophyta contains 11,500 species of organisms called diatoms.
·        Diatoms are abundant in both freshwater and marine environments; the cell wall, called shells, of the diatoms contains two pieces that fit together like a box; each half is called a valve.
·        Centric diatoms have circular or triangular shells and are most abundant in marine environments.
·        Pennate diatoms have rectangular shells and are most abundant in freshwater ponds and lakes; some pennate diatoms by secreting threads that attach to the surface of the water.
·        Diatoms are an abundant component of phytoplankton and are important producers in freshwater and marine food webs, along with being an essential source of nutrients for microscopic heterotrophs, and they release an abundance of oxygen.
·        When diatoms die their shells sink and accumulate in large numbers, forming a layer of material called diatomaceous earth.

Phylum Dinoflagellata
·      The phylum Dinoflagellata contains 1,100 species of organisms called dinoflagellates.
·        Dinoflagellates are small, usually unicellular organisms, photosynthetic, but a few are colorless and heterotrophic, and they are the major producers of organic matter in marine environments.
·      Photosynthetic dinoflagellates usually have a yellowish green to brown color due to large amounts of pigments called carotenoids and chlorophylls a and c.
·      Some species of dinoflagellates, such as Noctiluca, can produce bioluminescence, a display of sparkling light often seen in the ocean water at night.
·      When other species produce toxins and red pigments that explode, a resulting phenomenon is the red tide.

Phylum Chrysophyta
·        The phylum Chrysophyta contains about 850 species of organisms called golden algae, which live in freshwater, but few are found in marine environments.
·        Most of the species placed in this phylum are some shade of yellow or brown due to the presence of large amounts of carotenoids.
·        Golden algae store much of their surplus energy as oil and are important in the formation of petroleum deposits.

Phylum Euglenophyta
·        The phylum Euglenophyta contains 1,000 species of flagellated unicellular algae called euglenoids.
·        Euglenoids show both plantlike and animal-like characteristics; they are plantlike in that they have chlorophyll and are photosynthetic and they are animal-like in that they lack a cell wall and are highly motile.
·        Euglena is abundant in freshwater, especially in water polluted by excess nutrients.
·        Euglena lacks a cell wall and therefore is able to change its shape as it swims about.

Fungal-like Protists

Slime Molds
·        Slime molds spend half their life in a mobile, amoeba-like feeding form, engulfing organic matter and bacteria, like protozoa.
·        Slime molds produce funguslike reproductive structures, which is why they were once classified as fungi.
·        Slime molds are typically found growing on damp soil, rotting logs, decaying leaves, or other decomposing organic matter in moist areas.
·        During reproduction, slime molds produce a spore-bearing structure called a fruiting body.

Phylum Acrasiomycota
·        The phylum Acrasiomycota comprises about 65 species of cellular slime molds.
·        Cellular slime molds live as individual haploid cells that move about like amoebas; each cell moves as an independent organism, creeping over rotting logs and soil or swimming in fresh water, ingesting bacteria and other food.
·        A pseudoplasmodium is a coordinated colony of individual cells that resembles a slug, and it leaves a slimy trail as it crawls over decaying logs, leaves, and twigs.
·        Eventually a pseudoplasmodium will settle and form a fruiting body where spore will develop, then once the fruiting body breaks open, and the wind disperses the spores to new locations.

Phylum Myxomycota
·        450 species of plasmodial slime molds compose the phylum Myxomycota.
·        During the feeding stage of its life cycle, a plasmodial slime mold is a mass of cytoplasm called a plasmodium, and it may be as large as several square meters.
·        Each plasmodium is multinucleate or it contains thousands of nuclei.
·        The spores of a plasmodium are resistant to adverse conditions; in favorable conditions, they crack open and give rise to haploid reproductive cells.

Water Molds
· A water mold is a funguslike organism composed of branched filaments of cells.
· Water molds are aquatic and are commonly found in bodies of freshwater.

Phylum Oomycota
·        The phylum Oomycota includes a number of organisms that are pathogenic to plants.
·        Blight is a disease of plants characterized by quickly developing decay and discoloring leaves, stems, and flowers.
·        Water molds reproduce asexually and sexually.
·        During asexual reproduction, they produce motile, flagellated reproductive zoospores, which accumulate to form a matlike mass.
·        During sexual reproduction, the cells of the water mold develops egg-containing and sperm-containing structures, then tubes grow between the two types of structures letting the sperm cells to fertilize haploid egg cells to form diploid zygotes.

Phylum Chytridiomycota
· It is approximately 750 protists species in the phylum Chytridiomycota.
· The chytrids are primarily aquatic protists characterized by gametes and zoospores with a single, posterior flagellum.

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Potato Osmosis Bi Lab

Potato Osmosis

Introduction:

A shipwrecked sailor is stranded on a small desert island with no fresh water to drink. She knows she could last without food for up to a month, but if she didn’t have water to drink she would be dead within a week. Hoping to postpone the inevitable, her thirst drove her to drink the salty seawater. She was dead in two days. Why do you think drinking seawater killed the sailor faster than not drinking any water at all? Today we explore the cause of the sailor’s death. We’ll prepare solutions of salt water to represent the sea, and we’ll cut up slices of potato to represent the sailor. Potatoes are made of cells, as is the sailor!

Objective:

The concentration of solute in a solution will affect the movement of water across potato cell membranes.

Materials:

potato, corer, 3 plastic cups, marker, salt, sugar, distilled water, paper, pencil, electronic balance, clock with second hand or timer, metric ruler, small ziplock plastic bag, foil or plastic wrap

Procedure:

Day 1

Use a knife to square off the ends of your potato. Your potato’s cells will act like the sailor’s cells.
Stand your potato on end & use your cork borers to bore 3 vertical holes.

Remove the potato cylinders from the cork borer & measure their length in centimeters.
Cut the 3 potato cylinders to the same length (about 4 -5 centimeters long).
Record the length & turgidity of the potato cylinders in your data table (day 1).
Place the 3 potato cylinders in a small ziplock bag to prevent them from dehydrating before they’re used.
Take 3 plastic cups and label them with the solution that will be placed in each one — sugar, salt, distilled water.
Prepare a saturated solution of salt by mixing as much salt as you can with water.
Repeat this step by making a saturated sugar solution.
Now fill each cup 2/3’s full of the correct solution —- sugar water, salt water, or distilled water.
Mass each of the potato cylinders & record this mass in grams on your data table.
Place one of your potato cylinders into each cup and cover the top of the cup with foil or plastic.
Leave the potato cylinders in the solution for 24 hours.

Day 2

Carefully remove the potato cylinder from the distilled water solution & pat it dry on a paper towel.
Measure the length of the potato cylinder & record this length & the appearance of the cylinder on your data table. (day 2)
Measure & record the mass of this cylinder.
Repeat steps 13-15 for the potato cylinders in the salt solution & the sugar solution.
Clean up your equipment & area and return materials to their proper place.

Data:

Results of Osmosis in Potato Cells
Solution	Initial length cm (day1)	Final length cm (day2)	Change in length cm	Initial Mass g (day1)	Final Mass g (day2)	Change in mass g	Initial Turgidity (flaccid or crisp)	Final Turgidity (flaccid or crisp)	Tonicity of Solution (iso-, hypo-, or hpertonic)
Distilled water
Salt Solution
Sugar Solution

Results & Conclusions:

1. Did any of the potato cylinders change in their turgidity (flexibility), and if so, which ones changed?

2. Explain why the flexibility of the potato slices changed.

3. Define isotonic, hypotonic, & hypertonic solutions.

4. If potato slices changed in length or turgidity, what process was responsible for this?

5. Make a sketch of your potato cylinder in the distilled water and use arrows to show the direction of water movement across the potato cell membranes.

6. What type of solutions were the salt & sugar solutions. Explain how you know this.

7. Which solution served as the control for this experiment & why?

8. In which solutions was their a greater solute concentration outside of the cells?

9. In which direction did water move through these cell membranes?

10. In what type of solution do plant cells do best & why?

11. Using the information you’ve discovered from this experiment, explain why the sailor died that drank saltwater.

BACK

Plant Classification Study Guide

PLANT EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION

1. There are more than ________________ different plant species.

2. Plants share Four Characteristics:
A._________________________________________________________________

B._________________________________________________________________

C._________________________________________________________________

D._________________________________________________________________

3. In their characteristics plants are most similar to the ________________________.

4. Plants and Green Algae Have these Characteristics in Common:
A.__________________________________________________________________

B.__________________________________________________________________

C.__________________________________________________________________

D.__________________________________________________________________

5. There are also some important Difference:
A.__________________________________________________________________

B.__________________________________________________________________

C.__________________________________________________________________

D.__________________________________________________________________

6. All plants are photosynthetic, multicellular, __________________________ organisms, and can _________________________ _________________________.

7. A ____________________ is a ripen ovary that surrounds the seeds of angiosperms.

8. All plants probably evolved from ______________________ __________________.

9. One of the greatest problems that encountered by the first land plants was the need for
___________________________.

10. How does water aid the fertilization of some organisms? ______________________
____________________________________________________________________

11. _________________________ of _______________________ means that there are TWO
phases in the life cycle of plants:

A. The first phase: ___________________ ______________________ phase that produces ________________________ and _______________________.

B. The second phase: ___________________ _____________________ phase that produces ________________________.

12. Sexual reproduction ensures there will be __________________________ ______________________ in plants.

13. The type of vascular tissue that transports organic compounds is ____________________________.

14. The _____________________ is a waxy, waterproof layer that coats the parts of a plant
exposed to air.

15. The earliest plants were probably __________________, and had NO true ___________,
____________________, or ______________________.

16. __________________ is a hard compound that strengthens cell walls, enabling cells to support additional weight.

17. The 12 Phyla of plants can be divided into two groups based on the presence of __________________________ ___________________________.

18. One adaptation that help land plants to slow the evaporation of water was a
____________________________.

19. The type of vascular tissue that transports water is _________________________.

20. This type of angiosperm has parallel leaf venation __________________________.

21. The waxy covering on plant surfaces is called _____________________________.

22. The plant material in peat bogs decomposes very ________________________ because the bogs are ____________________________.

23. How many plant phyla produce seeds? _____________________

24. What type of gymnosperm produces fleshy seeds? ____________________________

25. What is the photosynthetic phase of a moss called? ______________________________

26. Bryophytes, instead of roots, they have long, thin strands of cells called ____________________ that attach the plant to the soil.

27. Vascular plants absorb water from the soil through underground structures called
_____________________. They also provide a plant with ___________________.

28. Non-woody plants are usually called ___________________________.

29. _____________________ carries organic compounds in any direction depending on the plant’s needs.

30. In order to reproduce, a nonvascular plant must have ________________________.

31. Rhizoids are long, thin strands of cells that resemble ________________________.

32. The roots of vascular plants absorb water and _________________________ _________________________.

33. What is the non-photosynthetic phase of a moss called ____________________________.

34. Gymnosperms produce “_____________________” seeds, while angiosperms produce _______________________ protected inside a _____________________________.

35. This type of angiosperm has net leaf venation __________________________.

36. The _________________________ allow for the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen.

37. Sphagnum is often used to ______________________ soil and help it ____________________ __________________________.

38. A ___________________ is a protective structure that contains a plant
__________________, and _________________ __________________.

39. A __________________ is a structure that develops in plants with flowers and contains the
____________________.

40. Nonvascular plants are distinguished by the absence of ______________________ and ____________________________.

41. All nonvascular plants are collectively called _______________________________.

42. Vascular plants are classified into one of Two Types: _______________________ or
________________________________ plants.

43. What are the Four Phyla of Seedless Vascular Plants? ________________________,
________________________, ______________________, ________________________.

44. What are the Five Phyla of Seed Vascular Plants? _______________________,
_________________________, _________________________,
________________________, and ______________________________.

45. Vascular seed plants are subdivided into TWO general categories according to the type of seeds they produce: _________________________________ and
____________________________________.

46. A ____________________________ is a special reproductive structure composed of hard scales, that produces seeds without a fruit.

47. ____________________ are vascular plants that produce seeds lacking a protective
_______________________. They are often called _______________ _________.

48. A seed is a _________________________ embryo inside a __________________________ _____________________.

49. The _____________________ are vascular plants that produce seeds enclosed and
__________________ by a __________________.

50. All angiosperms produce _________________ and _________________.

51. The protective structure that contains the seed or seeds of an angiosperm is the
______________________.

52. One way of distinguishing among the many types of angiosperms is by counting the number of seed leaves or ________________________.

53. Angiosperms with only ONE cotyledon are called _______________________________ or simply _____________________.

54. An angiosperm whose embryo has TWO cotyledons are called __________________________________ or simply _______________________.

56. Plants that produce seed protected by a fruit are called _______________________________.

57. A dicot is an angiosperm whose embryo has Two _______________________.

58. Plants remove carbon dioxide from the air by the process of ________________________.

59. Bryophytes are _______________-growing plants that live in _____________________ ________________________________.

60. All vascular plants have __________________________ tissues and _____________________________ of _________________________________.

61. True roots, stems, and leaves are characteristics of all ______________________ _________________________.

62. What are the primary functions of spores and seeds?

63. In what ways do green algae differ from plants?

64. Why do nonvascular plants have to live in moist environments?

65. Name three bryophytes, and identify their common characteristics.

66. Which plant phylum contains the tallest and most massive plants? Is this a phylum of nonvascular, seedless vascular, or seed plants?

67. Conifers are often found living at high elevations in locations with cold, dry winters. What characteristic enables them to retain their leaves in these conditions?

Preap Cell Study Guide

Cell Structure & Function Review

1. The first Person to describe microscopic organisms and living cells was
________________________________.

2. The maximum size to which a cell may grow is limited mainly by the cell’s ___________________________ ____________________________.

3. Short, hair-like organelles that can move and may cover a unicellular organism or line the respiratory tract are called ______________________________________.

4. Some Ribosomes are free in the cytoplasm, while others line the membrane of the
_________________ __________________ __________________________.

5. Everything between the cell membrane and the nucleus, is the cell’s
____________________________________.

6. All cells, from all organisms, are surrounded by a _______________ _____________________.

7. Membranes are _______________________ and have the consistency of vegetable oil.

8. The organelle that stores DNA and synthesizes RNA _________________________.

9. The organelle that processes and packages substances produced by the cell ______________________ _________________________.

10. The ____________________________ is the control center of the cell.

11. The DNA in the form of a long strand is called ______________________________.

12. Cytoplasm consists of two main components: ____________________________ and
______________________________.

13. The cell membrane functions like a ______________________, controlling what
__________________ and _______________________ the cell.

14. A lipid is a simple form of ________________________________.

15. There are many kinds of ______________________ in cell membranes; they help to move material into and out of the cell.

16. Scientist call the modern view of the cell membrane structure the
______________________________ ____________________ _________________.

17. The nucleus is surrounded by a double layer membrane called the
__________________________ _________________________________.

18. During cell division, _________________________ strands coil and condense into thick structures called _____________________________________.

19. The nucleoli make ___________________________. Which in turn build proteins.

20. Membranes are made mostly of ___________________ and ______________________.

21. The _________________ is the smallest unit that can carry out all of the processes of life. The basic unit of life.

22. The maximum size to which a cell may grow is limited mainly by the cell’s ___________________ ____________________.

23. The discovery of cells is linked most directly the development of the __________________________.

24. Organisms whose cells never contain a membrane bound nucleus are called _____________________________________.

24. Suspended in the cell’s cytosol are tiny ___________________________________.

25. Cell membranes consist of two phospholipid layers called a ___________________.

26. The chromosomes in the nucleus contain coded _____________________ that control all cellular activity.

27. When a cell prepares to reproduce the _______________________ disappears.

28. Cytosol is a jelylike mixture that consists mostly of _____________________.

29. The nucleus is one ______________________________.

30. In Eukaryotic cells, most organelles are surrounded by a _____________________.

31. Organisms whose cells always or usually contain a nucleus or nuclei are called
____________________________________.

32. ________________________ are structures that carry out specific functions in the cell.

33. Most cells have a single ______________________; some cells have more than one.

34. Unicellular organisms such as bacteria and their relatives are ___________________________.

35. The Fluid Mosaic Model presents the modern view of a
__________________ ___________________________.

36. The “Blueprints” in a Cell that controls all its activity are the ___________________.

37. Where are poisons and waste detoxified in a cell? _________________________ _________________________________.

38. A cell synthesizes protein by using organelles called _______________________________.

39. The Mitochondria of a cell contain an inner membrane called _____________________________.

40. What are the membrane-bound sacs that package and secrete cell products?
___________________________ ___________________________.

41. Unlike animal cells, plant cells have ______________ ________________.

42. A Chloroplast can convert _________________, __________________________, and ____________________________ into ________________________.

43. What are Flagella? ___________________________________________________.

44. In animal cells, the Cytoskeleton maintains three-dimensional structure and helps the cell ___________________________.

45. The organelle that digest molecules, old organelles, and foreign substances in the cell _______________________________________.

46. A pigment that absorbs energy in sunlight ________________________________.

47. The organelle that prepares proteins for export and synthesizes steroids is ________________________ ________________________.

48. Ribosomes differ from most organelles because they have no ___________________________.

49. What type of cells would you expect to find large numbers of mitochondria? _______________________ _________________.

50. The “Powerhouse” of the cell _______________________________.

51. Short, hairlike organelles that can move and may cover a unicellular organism or line the respiratory tract are called _______________________________.

52. The first cells on Earth were likely _______________________ that did __________ make their own _________________.

53. Microfilaments and microtubules function in cell _______________________ and ____________________________.

54. What is the correct order of structures in living things, from simplest to the most complex? ______________________, __________________________, ______________________________, ______________________________.

55. The is the organelle that transfers energy in ATP _______________________________.

56. What word means “Water Fearing”? ____________________________.

57. What word means “Water Loving”? _____________________________.

58. What is cell specialization? Give an example.
59. Distinguish between the structure of rough ER and that of smooth ER.

60. Explain how ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus function together in protein synthesis.

61. Explain the difference between a tissue and an organ.

62. Why is the cell membrane said to be selectively permeable?

63. If a cell has a high energy requirement, would you expect it to have many or few mitochondria? Explain your answer.

64. Describe TWO differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

65. How can you determine whether a unicellular organism is a prokaryote or a eukaryote?

66. Plant cells have cell walls, but animal cells do not. Why do you think that is so?

67. What are the THREE Parts of the Cell Theory?

68. Describe three differences between plant and animal cells.

69. Name the TWO different kinds of animal cells, and describe how their shape is related to their function.

70. What is the difference between chromatin and chromosomes?

71. What are the major roles of the nucleus, and what parts of the nucleus carry out these roles?

72. What is a colonial organism, and what does it have in common with multicellular organisms?

Plant Reproduction

PLANT LIFE CYCLES:

A life cycle includes all of the stages of an organism’s growth and development
A plant’s life cycle involves two alternating multicellular stages – a Diploid (2n) sporophyte stage and a Haploid (1n) gametophyte stage
This type of life cycle is called Alternation of Generations

Moss Characteristics:

Nonvascular (pass water cell-to-cell)
Seedless (reproduce by spores)
Low growing
Phylum Bryophyta (also includes liverworts & hornworts)
Grow on moist brick walls, in sidewalks, as thick mats on forest floors, and on the shaded side of trees

Can survive periodic dry spells, reviving when water becomes available
Require water for fertilization so sperm can swim to egg
Rhizoids (root like structures) anchor mosses
Have waxy covering called cuticle on aerial parts to prevent desiccation

Moss Life Cycle:

Dominant form of a moss is a clump of leafy green gametophytes (photosynthetic)
Moss alternates between a haploid (1n) gametophyte and diploid (2n) sporophyte
Gametophyte generation produces gametes (eggs & Sperm)
Sporophyte generation forms at the top of the gametophytes and produces spores
Stalk-like sporophytes lack chlorophyll
Capsule at the top of the sporophyte forms haploid (1n) spores

Sexual reproduction in Moss:

Moss produce 2 kinds of jacketed gametes — eggs & sperm
Egg producing organ is called the archegonium
Eggs are larger and nonmotile
Sperm producing organ is called the antheridium
Sperm are smaller, flagellated cells
Antheridia & archegonia are both part of the gametophyte plant
Fertilization can occur only during or soon after RAIN when the gametophyte is covered with Water
Sperm swim to the egg by following a trail of chemicals released by the egg in the water
Fertilization produces a zygote that becomes a sporophyte
Mature sporophytes produce homosporous spores (all the same type)
Mature capsules open & release spores spread by wind
Spores landing on moist places germinate into protonema that become new gametophytes

Asexual Moss Reproduction:

Small pieces may break off from a gametophyte & become a new plant (fragmentation)
Small buds called gemmae may be washed off by rain and develop new moss plants

Fern Characteristics & Life Cycle:

Largest group of seedless, vascular plants
Grow in moist places
Goes through alternation of generations
Sporophyte phase is the dominant stage
Fern gametophytes are small, flat plants anchored to the soil by root-like rhizoids
Antheridia & archegonia form on the underside of fern gametophytes

Sperm swim to egg through water droplets to form zygote (fertilized egg)
Zygotes form new sporophytes with roots, stems, & leaves
Spore cases called sori form on the underside of fern fronds (leaves)

Ferns are homosporous (single type of spore formed)

New fronds form from an underground stem called the rhizome
Vascular tissue carries nutrients & water between the parts of the fern
Fronds are compound leaves attached by a short stalk called the stipe to the underground stem or rhizome

Immature fronds or fiddleheads are coiled

Characteristics & Life Cycle of Conifers:

Called gymnosperms
Have naked seeds that develop on scales of the female cones
Sporophyte is the dominant stage
Adapted to cooler climates
Called evergreens (pine, cedar, spruce, fir…)
Giant Redwood is one of the Earth’s largest organisms
Bristlecone Pines are the oldest living organisms (some more than 5000 years old)


Giant Redwood	Bristlecone Pine

Produce 2 types of spores (heterosporous)
Male spores called microspores grow into male gametophytes
Female spores called megaspores grow into female gametophytes
A Pine cone is the female cone on a pine tree
Male cones on pine trees are smaller & grow in clusters at the tips of branches
Both male & female cones appear on the same tree


Female Cones	Male Cones

The pine life cycle takes 2-3 years from the formation of cones until seeds are released
Female cones have spirally-arranged scales with ovules at their base
Female cones produce sticky resin
Ovules contain an egg that will develop into a seed
Male cones produce large amounts of pollen in the spring that is spread by wind to the female cones
Resin traps the pollen so pollination can occur
A tube from the pollen grain takes a year to grow to the ovule so a sperm can fertilize the egg and form seeds

Angiosperms or Flowering Plants:

Bright colors, attractive shapes, and fragrant aromas help flowering plants attract their pollinators (insects, birds, mammals…)
Flowers without bright colors and pleasing odors are usually wind or water pollinated (grasses)
Called angiosperms
Flowers, the reproductive part of a plant, have a swollen base or receptacle to attach to the stem
Flowers have 4 whorls (modified leaves) attached to the receptacle — petals, sepals, pistils, and stamen
Pistils (innermost whorl) are the female part of the flower, while Stamens are the male part
Sepals (outermost whorl) are found below the petals and may look leaf-like (some may be the same color as petals)
Sepals enclose the flower bud before it opens
Sepals are collectively called the calyx
Petals are often colorful to attract pollinators
Petals are collectively called the corolla

Monocot flower parts are arranged in multiple of THREES, while dicots are in multiples of FOUR or FIVE
Perfect flowers have both stamens & pistils (rose)
Imperfect flowers are either a male (pistillate) or female (staminate) flower (pumpkin or melons)
Some angiosperms have both male & female flowers on the SAME plant (monoecious)
Other angiosperms have entire male OR female plants (dioecious)

Female Reproductive Structures:

Called carpals
Carpals may be fused to form the pistil
Produce eggs
Composed of 3 parts — stigma, style, and ovary
Stigma is located at the top and may be sticky or have hairs to hold pollen grains landing there
Style is a stalk-like connection between the stigma and the ovary
Ovary is the enlarged base containing ovules with eggs

Pistil

Male Reproductive organs:

Called stamens
Produce pollen
Composed of 2 parts — filament & anther (pollen sac)
Anthers produce pollen grains containing sperm
Filament is stalk-like & supports the pollen sacs

Stamen

Angiosperm Life Cycle:

Undergo alternation of generations
Sporophyte is dominant phase
Gametophytes (flowers) form male & female gametes
Anthers form pollen grains from microspores
Pollen grains contain 2 cells — tube cell & generative cell (sperm)
Two protective layers called integuments surround the megasporangium
The entire structure including the integuments is the ovule and becomes the seed
Each ovule has 4 megaspores (three disintegrate)
The remaining megaspore undergoes mitosis to produce a large cell & polar nuclei
When pollen lands on the stigma, a pollen tube grows through the style to the ovary
Two sperm travel down the pollen tube — one fertilizes the egg and the other join with polar nuclei to form endosperm (stored food for Seed)
Called Double Fertilization

After fertilization, ovule becomes the seed and the ovary & surrounding tissues form a protective fruit
A fruit is a ripened ovary with seeds (apple, melon, cocklebur…)
When seed land on moist soil, they germinate (sprout) and form new sporophyte plants

Pollination:

Wind, water, and animals help spread pollen
As pollinators drink nectar or eat the fruit, pollen gets on their bodies and is spread to other flowers
Self pollination occurs whenever pollen from a flower lands on the stigma of that SAME flower (pea plants)
Cross pollination occurs whenever pollen is spread to a different flower producing hybrids (more gene combinations)

Seeds & Fruit:

Fruits are adaptations for dispersing seeds (coconuts float, cockleburs catch onto animal fur, some seeds eaten by birds aren’t digestible…)
More energy is required to produce seeds than spores because they contain stored food
Seeds may be dormant (inactive) for weeks or years protected by their seed coat
Seeds contain a plant embryo and endosperm

Many fruits are fleshy & their seeds aren’t digested by the animals that eat them
Heavy seeds have adaptations such as wing-like structures (maple) or prickly coats (cocklebur) to help them disperse


maple seeds	Cockleburs	Coconut

Fruits may be dry or fleshy
Three types of fruits exist — simple, aggregate, & multiple
Simple fruits (apple) form from One pistil on a flower
Aggregate fruits (raspberry) form from several pistils on a flower
Multiple fruits (pineapple) form several flowers growing close together
Cotyledons are leaf-like structures of the plant embryo
Monocot seeds have one seed leaf (Cotyledon), while dicots have two cotyledons

The epicotyl is the part of the plant embryo ABOVE the cotyledon & becomes the stem
The radicle is the part of the plant embryo BELOW the cotyledon & becomes the root
The hypocotyl is the part of the plant embryo BETWEEN the cotyledon & the radicle
The hilium is a scar along the seed edge where it was attached to the ovary
In monocot seeds like corn, a sheath called the coleoptile grows out of the ground to protect the newly emerging plant

Germination:

Many seeds require environmental factors, such as Water, Oxygen, and Temperature to trigger germination
Some seeds only germinate after exposure to extreme cold or after passing through an animal’s digestive tract
Water must FIRST be absorbed by the seed to break the seed coat & activate enzymes to change starch in the endosperm or cotyledons into simple sugars for energy
The radicle emerges first

Once the seed coat opens, OXYGEN is needed for cellular respiration carried on by the embryo plant
The shoot (hypocotyl & embryonic leaves) begin to grow, synthesize chlorophyll, and carry on photosynthesis