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Chapter 22 AP Objectives

 

Chapter 22    Darwinian View of Life
Objectives
The Historical Context for Evolutionary Theory
1. Explain the mechanism for evolutionary change proposed by Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species.
2. Define evolution and adaptation.
3. Compare and contrast Aristotle’s scala naturae to Carolus Linnaeus’ classification scheme.
4. Describe the theories of catastrophism, gradualism, and uniformitarianism.
5. Explain the mechanism for evolutionary change proposed by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck. Explain why modern biology has rejected Lamarck’s theories.
The Darwinian Revolution
6. Describe how Darwin’s observations on the voyage of the HMS Beagle led him to formulate and support his theory of evolution.
7. Explain how the principle of gradualism and Charles Lyell’s theory of uniformitarianism influenced Darwin’s ideas about evolution.
8. Explain what Darwin meant by “descent with modification.”
9. Explain what evidence convinced Darwin that species change over time.
10. Explain how Linnaeus’ classification scheme fit Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.
11. Describe the three inferences Darwin made from his observations that led him to propose natural selection as a mechanism for evolutionary change.
12. Explain how an essay by the Rev. Thomas Malthus influenced Charles Darwin.
13. Distinguish between artificial selection and natural selection.
14. Explain why an individual organism cannot evolve.
15. Describe the experiments that supported Reznick and Endler’s hypothesis that differences in life-history traits between guppy populations are due to selective pressure based on predation.
16. Explain how the existence of homologous and vestigial structures can be explained by Darwin’s theory of natural selection.
17. Explain how evidence from biogeography supports the theory of evolution by natural selection.
18. Explain the problem with the statement that Darwinism is “just a theory.” Distinguish between the scientific and colloquial use of the word theory.

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Chapter 35 AP Objectives

 

Chapter 35     Plant Structure and Growth
Objectives
The Plant Body
1. Describe and compare the three basic organs of vascular plants. Explain how these basic organs are interdependent.
2. List the basic functions of roots. Describe and compare the structures and functions of fibrous roots, taproots, root hairs, and adventitious roots.
3. Describe the basic structure of plant stems.
4. Explain the phenomenon of apical dominance.
5. Describe the structures and functions of four types of modified shoots.
6. Describe and distinguish between the leaves of monocots and those of eudicots.
7. Describe the three tissue systems that make up plant organs.
8. Describe and distinguish between the three basic cell types of plant tissues. For each tissue, describe one characteristic structural feature and explain its functional significance.
9. Explain the functional relationship between a sieve-tube member and its companion cell.
The Process of Plant Growth and Development
10. Distinguish between determinate and indeterminate growth. Give an example of each type of growth.
11. Distinguish among annual, biennial, and perennial plants.
12. Explain this statement: “In contrast to most animals, which have a stage of embryonic growth, plants have regions of embryonic growth.”
13. Distinguish between the primary and secondary plant body.
14. Describe in detail the primary growth of the tissues of roots and shoots.
15. Describe in detail the secondary growth of the tissues of roots and shoots.
16. Name the cells that make up the tissue known as wood. Name the tissues that comprise the bark.
Mechanisms of Plant Growth and Development
17. Explain why Arabidopsis is an excellent model for the study of plant development.
18. Explain what each of these Arabidopsis mutants has taught us about plant development:
a. fass mutant
b. gnom mutant
c. KNOTTED-1 mutant
d. GLABRA-2 mutant
19. Define and distinguish between morphogenesis, differentiation, and growth.
20. Explain why (a) the plane and symmetry of cell division, (b) the orientation of cell expansion, and (c) cortical microtubules are important determinants of plant growth and development.
21. Explain how pattern formation may be determined in plants.
22. Give an example to demonstrate how a cell’s location influences its developmental fate.
23. Explain how a vegetative shoot tip changes into a floral meristem.
24. Describe how three classes of organ identity genes interact to produce the spatial pattern of floral organs in Arabidopsis.
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Chapter 23 AP Objectives

 

Chapter 23    Evolution of Populations
Objectives
Population Genetics
1. Explain the statement “It is the population, not the individual, that evolves.”
2. Explain how Mendel’s particulate hypothesis of inheritance provided much-needed support for Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.
3. Distinguish between discrete and quantitative traits. Explain how Mendel’s laws of inheritance apply to quantitative traits.
4. Explain what is meant by “the modern synthesis.”
5. Define the terms population, species, and gene pool.
6. Explain why meiosis and random fertilization alone will not alter the frequency of alleles or genotypes in a population.
7. List the five conditions that must be met for a population to remain in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
8. Write the Hardy-Weinberg equation. Use the equation to calculate allele frequencies when the frequency of homozygous recessive individuals in a population is 25%.
Mutation and Sexual Recombination
9. Explain why the majority of point mutations are harmless.
10. Explain why mutation has little quantitative effect on allele frequencies in a large population.
11. Describe the significance of transposons in the generation of genetic variability.
12. Explain how sexual recombination generates genetic variability.
Natural Selection, Genetic Drift, and Gene Flow
13. Explain the following statement: “Only natural selection leads to the adaptation of organisms to their environment.”
14. Explain the role of population size in genetic drift.
15. Distinguish between the bottleneck effect and the founder effect.
16. Describe how gene flow can act to reduce genetic differences between adjacent populations.
Genetic Variation, the Substrate for Natural Selection
17. Explain how quantitative and discrete characters contribute to variation within a population.
18. Distinguish between average heterozygosity and nucleotide variability. Explain why average heterozygosity tends to be greater than nucleotide variability.
19. Define a cline.
20. Define relative fitness.
a. Explain why relative fitness is zero for a healthy, long-lived, sterile organism.
b. Explain why relative fitness could be high for a short-lived organism.
21. Distinguish among directional, disruptive, and stabilizing selection. Give an example of each mode of selection.
22. Explain how diploidy can protect a rare recessive allele from elimination by natural selection.
23. Describe how heterozygote advantage and frequency-dependent selection promote balanced polymorphism.
24. Define neutral variations. Explain why natural selection does not act on these alleles.
25. Distinguish between intrasexual selection and intersexual selection.
26. Explain how female preferences for showy male traits may benefit the female.
27. Describe the disadvantages of sexual reproduction.
28. Explain how the genetic variation promoted by sex may be advantageous to individuals on a generational time scale.
29. List four reasons why natural selection cannot produce perfect organisms.

 
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Chapter 36 AP Objectives

Chapter 36     Transport in Plants
Objectives
An Overview of Transport Mechanisms in Plants
1. Describe how proton pumps function in transport of materials across plant membranes, using the terms proton gradient, membrane potential, cotransport, and chemiosmosis.
2. Define osmosis and water potential. Explain how water potential is measured.
3. Explain how solutes and pressure affect water potential.
4. Explain how the physical properties of plant cells are changed when the plant is placed into solutions that have higher, lower, or the same solute concentration.
5. Define the terms flaccid, plasmolyze, turgor pressure, and turgid.
6. Explain how aquaporins affect the rate of water transport across membranes.
7. Name the three major compartments in vacuolated plant cells.
8. Distinguish between the symplast and the apoplast.
9. Describe three routes available for lateral transport in plants.
10. Define bulk flow and describe the forces that generate pressure in the vascular tissue of plants.
11. Relate the structure of sieve-tube cells, vessel cells, and tracheids to their functions in bulk flow.
Absorption of Water and Minerals by Roots
12. Explain what routes are available to water and minerals moving into the vascular cylinder of the root.
13. Explain how mycorrhizae enhance uptake of materials by roots.
14. Explain how the endodermis functions as a selective barrier between the root cortex and vascular cylinder.
Transport of Xylem Sap
15. Describe the potential and limits of root pressure to move xylem sap.
16. Define the terms transpiration and guttation.
17. Explain how transpirational pull moves xylem sap up from the root tips to the leaves.
18. Explain how cavitation prevents the transport of water through xylem vessels.
19. Explain this statement: “The ascent of xylem sap is ultimately solar powered.”
The Control of Transpiration
20. Explain the importance and costs of the extensive inner surface area of a leaf.
21. Discuss the factors that may alter the stomatal density of a leaf.
22. Describe the role of guard cells in photosynthesis-transpiration.
23. Explain how and when stomata open and close. Describe the cues that trigger stomatal opening at dawn.
24. Explain how xerophytes reduce transpiration.
25. Describe crassulacean acid metabolism and explain why it is an important adaptation to reduce transpiration in arid environments.
Translocation of Phloem Sap
26. Define and describe the process of translocation. Trace the path of phloem sap from a primary sugar source to a sugar sink.
27. Describe the process of sugar loading and unloading.
28. Define pressure flow. Explain the significance of this process in angiosperms.
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Chapter 24 AP Objectives

 

Chapter 24    Origin of Species
Objectives
What Is a Species?
1. Distinguish between anagenesis and cladogenesis.
2. Define Ernst Mayr’s biological species concept.
3. Distinguish between prezygotic and postzygotic isolating mechanisms.
4. Describe five prezygotic isolating mechanisms and give an example of each.
5. Explain a possible cause for reduced hybrid viability.
6. Explain how hybrid breakdown maintains separate species even if fertilization occurs.
7. Describe some limitations of the biological species concept.
8. Define and distinguish among the following: ecological species concept, paleontological species concept, phylogenetic species concept, and morphological species concept.
Modes of Speciation
9. Distinguish between allopatric and sympatric speciation.
10. Explain the allopatric speciation model and describe the mechanisms that may lead to divergence of isolated gene pools.
11. Describe examples of adaptive radiation in the Galápagos and Hawaiian archipelagoes.
12. Explain how reproductive barriers evolve. Describe an example of the evolution of a prezygotic barrier and the evolution of a postzygotic barrier.
13. Define sympatric speciation and explain how polyploidy can cause reproductive isolation.
14. Distinguish between an autopolyploid and an allopolyploid species and describe examples of each.
15. Describe how cichlid fishes may have speciated in sympatry in Lake Victoria.
Adaptive Radiation
16. Define adaptive radiation and describe the circumstances under which adaptive radiation may occur.
17. Describe the two gene loci implicated in speciation in Mimulus.
From Speciation to Macroevolution
18. Explain in general terms how a complex structure can evolve by natural selection.
19. Define exaptation and illustrate this concept with an example.
20. Explain how slight genetic divergences may lead to major morphological differences between species.
21. Explain how the evolution of changes in temporal and spatial developmental dynamics can result in evolutionary novelties.
22. Define evo-devo, heterochrony, allometric growth, and paedomorphosis.
23. Explain why extracting a single evolutionary progression from a fossil record can be misleading.
24. Define and illustrate the concept of species selection.
25. Explain why evolutionary change is not goal-directed.
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