My Classroom Material 194 - BIOLOGY JUNCTION

AP Lecture Guide 29-30 – Plant Diversity

AP Biology: CHAPTER 29 & 30- PLANT DIVERSITY

1. Chart the four phyla of the plant kingdom. Include common names of each, the approximate

number of extant species, and the major characteristics.

a. _______________________________________________________________________

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b. _______________________________________________________________________

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c. _______________________________________________________________________

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d. _______________________________________________________________________

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2. Why are Charophyceans thought to be ancestors of land plants?

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3. List several adaptations of land plants significant for terrestrial survival.

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4. Label the generic diagram to explain Alternation of Generations.

5. Describe a few features common to Bryophytes.

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6. What is the dominant phase of the moss life cycle?

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7. List a couple of adaptations of Pteridophytes (ferns) not seen in Bryophytes.

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8. What is the dominant phase of the fern life cycle? _________________________________

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9. How is the reduced gametophyte an adaptation for seeded plants?

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10. What is the significance of the seed? ___________________________________________

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11. What was the advantage of pollen? _____________________________________________

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12. List the four phyla of gymnosperms. Which is the most common? _____________________

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13. Identify five differences between monocots and dicots.

a. _______________________________________________________________________

b. _______________________________________________________________________

c. _______________________________________________________________________

d. _______________________________________________________________________

e. _______________________________________________________________________

14. What is the adaptive value of the flower to plants? _________________________________

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15. Describe the role of ovaries and ovules in the flowering plants.

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16. List several features of angiosperms that aid in seed dispersal.

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AP Lecture Guide 09 – Respiration – Glycolysis

AP Biology: Chapter 9

RESPIRATION — GLYCOLYSIS

1. Identify some specific processes the cell does with ATP. _____________________________

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2. Explain why ATP is such a “high energy” molecule. __________________________________

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3. Sketch the ATP cycle:

4. How does ATP “couple reactions”? ______________________________________________

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5. What is the name of enzymes which phosphorylate molecules? ________________________

6. Define each of the following:

a. Oxidation _______________________________________________________________

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b. Reduction _______________________________________________________________

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7. What is the role of NAD+ & FAD+2 in respiration? ___________________________________

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8. Explain why respiration is considered exergonic. ____________________________________

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9. Glycolysis starts with _____________________ and produces _________________________

10. The Kreb’s cycle takes place in the: ______________________________________________

11. Pyruvate is converted to ___________________________________ before the Krebs cycle.

12. The Electron Transport Chain is located in the: _____________________________________

13. Describe the role of the Electron Transport Chain. What happens to the electrons and H+?

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14. What is chemiomosis and how is it generated?

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15. How does the mitochondrion generate ATP?

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16. Label the diagram. Include: CO2, organic compounds, O2, H2O, respiration, photosynthesis, light, heat, ATP

23. Write the summary equation for cellular respiration:

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a. Where did the glucose come from? ___________________________________________

b. Where did the O2 come from? _______________________________________________

c. Where did the CO2 come from? ______________________________________________

d. Where did the H2O come from? ______________________________________________

e. Where did the ATP come from? ______________________________________________

f. What else is produced that is not listed in this equation? ___________________________

24. What was the evolutionary advantage of the proto-eukaryotes that engulfed aerobic bacteria

but did not digest them?

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25. Why do we eat? _____________________________________________________________

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26. Why do we breathe? __________________________________________________________

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17. What happens to most of the energy released during cell respiration? ___________________

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18. Alcoholic fermentation converts glucose to ________________________________________

19. Alcoholic fermentation is utilized by what organisms? ________________________________

20. Lactic acid fermentation converts glucose to________________________________________

21. Lactic acid fermentation is utilized by what organisms? _______________________________

22. Identify examples of each of the following feedback mechanisms

a. Negative feedback ________________________________________________________

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b. Positive feedback _________________________________________________________

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AP Lecture Guide HGP

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
INSIGHTS LEARNED FROM THE SEQUENCE

What has been learned from analysis of the working draft sequence of the human genome? What is still unknown?

By the Numbers

• The human genome contains 3164.7 million chemical nucleotide bases (A, C, T, and G).

• The average gene consists of 3000 bases, but sizes vary greatly, with the largest known human gene being dystrophin at 2.4 million bases.

• The total number of genes is estimated at 30,000 to 35,000, much lower than previous estimates of 80,000 to 140,000 that had been based on extrapolations from gene-rich areas as opposed to a composite of gene-rich and gene-poor areas.

• The order of almost all (99.9%) nucleotide bases are exactly the same in all people.

• The functions are unknown for over 50% of discovered genes.

The Wheat from the Chaff

• Less than 2% of the genome encodes for the production of proteins.

• Repeated sequences that do not code for proteins (“junk DNA”) make up at least 50% of the human genome.

• Repetitive sequences are thought to have no direct functions, but they shed light on chromosome structure and dynamics. Over time, these repeats reshape the genome by rearranging it, thereby creating entirely new genes or modifying and reshuffling existing genes.

• During the past 50 million years, a dramatic decrease seems to have occurred in the rate of accumulation of repeats in the human genome.

How It’s Arranged

• The human genome’s gene-dense “urban centers” are predominantly composed of the DNA building blocks G and C.

• In contrast, the gene-poor “deserts” are rich in the DNA building blocks A and T. GC- and AT-rich regions usually can be seen through a microscope as light and dark bands on chromosomes.

• Genes appear to be concentrated in random areas along the genome, with vast expanses of noncoding DNA between.

• Stretches of up to 30,000 C and G bases repeating over and over often occur adjacent to gene-rich areas, forming a barrier between the genes and the “junk DNA.” These CpG islands are believed to help regulate gene activity.

• Chromosome 1 has the most genes (2968), and the Y chromosome has the fewest (231).

How the Human Genome Compares with That of Other Organisms

• Unlike the human’s seemingly random distribution of gene-rich areas, many other organisms’ genomes are more uniform, with genes evenly spaced throughout.

• Humans have on average three times as many kinds of proteins as the fly or worm because of mRNA transcript “alternative splicing” and chemical modifications to the proteins. This process can yield different protein products from the same gene.

• Humans share most of the same protein families with worms, flies, and plants, but the number of gene family members has expanded in humans, especially in proteins involved in development and immunity.

• The human genome has a much greater portion (50%) of repeat sequences than the mustard weed (11%), the worm (7%), and the fly (3%).

• Although humans appear to have stopped accumulating repeated DNA over 50 million years ago, there seems to be no such decline in rodents. This may account for some of the fundamental differences between hominids and rodents, although gene estimates are similar in these species. Scientists have proposed many theories to explain evolutionary contrasts between humans and other organisms, including those of life span, litter sizes, inbreeding, and genetic drift.

Variations and Mutations

• Scientists have identified about 1.4 million locations where single-base DNA differences (SNPs) occur in humans. This information promises to revolutionize the processes of finding chromosomal locations for disease-associated sequences and tracing human history.

• The ratio of germline (sperm or egg cell) mutations is 2:1 in males vs females. Researchers point to several reasons for the higher mutation rate in the male germline, including the greater number of cell divisions required for sperm formation than for eggs.

What We Still Don’t Know: A Checklist for Future Research

• Exact gene number, exact locations, and functions

• Gene regulation

• DNA sequence organization

• Chromosomal structure and organization

• Noncoding DNA types, amount, distribution, information content, and functions

• Coordination of gene expression, protein synthesis, and post-translational events

• Interaction of proteins in complex molecular machines

• Predicted vs experimentally determined gene function

• Evolutionary conservation among organisms

• Protein conservation (structure and function)

• Proteomes (total protein content and function) in organisms

• Correlation of SNPs (single-base DNA variations among individuals) with health and disease

• Disease-susceptibility prediction based on gene sequence variation

• Genes involved in complex traits and multigene diseases

• Complex systems biology, including microbial consortia useful for environmental restoration

• Developmental genetics, genomics

http://genome.gsc.riken.go.jp/hgmis/project/journals/insights.html

AP Lecture Guide 10 – Photosynthesis

AP Biology: Chapter 10

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

1. What role do autotrophs fill in the biosphere?

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2. Indicate the role of each structure within the leaf:

a. stomates _______________________________________________________________

b. mesophyll cells __________________________________________________________

c. thylakoid membranes _____________________________________________________

d. stroma _________________________________________________________________

3. What is the source of oxygen released from photosynthesis?

__________________________________________________________________________

4. In the overview of photosynthesis, indicate the most significant function of:

a. Light reaction ___________________________________________________________

b. Calvin cycle ____________________________________________________________

5. Light is a form of energy known as _____________________________________________

and visible light has a wavelength range of _______________________________________ .

6. Plant light receptors absorb _________________________________________ wavelengths

of light and reflect ___________________________________________wavelengths of light.

7. The porphyrin ring of chlorophyll contains the element ______________________________

and the role of the ring is to ___________________________________________________

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8. What does chlorophyll do when excited by photons? _______________________________

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9. Label the diagram and explain the difference between Photosystem I and Photosystem II.

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10. With 2 different colored pencils, follow the energy paths of both noncyclic and cyclic electron

flow in the diagram.

11. How does cyclic differ from noncyclic photophosphorylation?

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12. To generate ATP, chloroplasts rely on the ETC to _________________________________

and ATP is synthesized when: _________________________________________________

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13. Within the thylakoid membrane and stroma, indicate what happens to each of the following:

a. water __________________________________________________________________

b. high energy electrons _____________________________________________________

c. H+ ____________________________________________________________________

d. oxygen ________________________________________________________________

e. NADP+ ________________________________________________________________

f. ADP __________________________________________________________________

14. Where in the chloroplast is the H+ concentration highest? ___________________________

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15. What happens during carbon fixation? __________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

16. List the materials the plant uses during the Calvin cycle and the source of the materials.

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17. The products of the Calvin cycle are ____________________________________________

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18. What environmental and internal challenges have forced both C4 and CAM plants to evolve

alternatives to the photosynthesis system used by other plants?

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19. Why do high oxygen levels inhibit photosynthesis? ________________________________

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20. What happens during photorespiration and why is it considered bad for plants?

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21. What evolutionary adaptations to the Calvin cycle are seen in C4 plants like sugar cane?

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22. Draw a diagram to show the anatomical adaptations seen in C4 plants to accommodate their variation on the Calvin cycle.

23. What evolutionary adaptation to the Calvin cycle is seen in CAM plants like cacti?

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AP Plant Study Guide-8b

Unit 8B – Plants

Know the following:

water potential of a turgid plant cell in pure water
adaptations of hydrophytes
what occurs if guard & surrounding epidermal cells are K+ deficient
how stomata are opened & closed
what must the plant expend for bulk flow of water in the root apoplast
which part of an oat seedling detects the direction of light
effect of gibberellins on the aleurone layer of seeds
how plant hormones determine the bending of plants toward light
what hormone might produce normal growth in a mutant dwarf plant
what can function as a sink in plants
why does photosynthesis decrease in wilting leaves
what are epiphytes
what is chlorosis
what soil characteristics would be the least productive to plant growth
what happens to most water taken up by a plant
how solutes move in plants according to the pressure-flow hypothesis of phloem transport
what causes guttation to occur
why does most of the water in xylem move upward in a tree
what property of water causes cohesion of its molecules
function of companion cells
what 2 elements make up most of the dry weight of plants
what could be the harmful effect of spraying a fungicide on a woodlot
what do carnivorous plants supplement by eating insects
why is nitrogen fixation so important
what would be characteristics of soil well suited for plant growth
what is the function of micronutrients in plants
what elements are micronutrients needed by plants
what elements are macronutrients needed by plants
what is meant by double fertilization
what are some “vegetables” that technically are fruits
why is sexual reproduction an advantage to plants
what is the megaspore mother cell & what does it do
what do male gametophytes produce in plants
name 4 flower parts that are modified leaves
what is the function of a seed’s radicle
what forms pollen on a plant
what do the 2 sperm nuclei fertilize in plants
what causes seed germination
what floral parts are involved in pollination & fertilization
what things can function in signal transduction in plants
what is needed by a short-day plant for it to flower
what type of tropism do vines use to grow toward tropical trees
why do plants use changes in photoperiods instead of air temperature changes to trigger dormancy
what is needed to get poinsettias to bloom early in December
do plant hormones act the same on all root & stem tissues
what hormone is involved in the rapid opening & closing of stomata
what effect do auxins have on stem cuttings that are to be rooted