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Plant Pigments and Photosynthesis

Introduction:
Photosynthesis has two main parts, which are the light dependent and the light –independent. In the light-dependent reactions pigments trap energy from light, and this energy is used to split water molecules (photolysis). The light-independent reactions or dark phase of photosynthesis involve the fixing of carbon dioxide. It makes glucose and fructose chains and also releases oxygen , which passes through the stomata of the plant.

Organisms that carry out photosynthesis making their own organic molecules are called autotrophic. Some autotrophic organisms include plants, algae, and blue-green bacteria. Plants have many varieties of pigments, all of which absorb different colors of light. Chlorophyll a is the primary plant pigment and makes up about three-fourths of all the plant pigments. It absorbs red and blue light and is not found in photosynthetic bacteria.

Chlorophyll b is another plant pigment. It absorbs blue-green and orange-red light. Carotenoids are a type of accessory pigment that absorb blue and blue-green light. These pigments are fat soluble and usually masked by chlorophyll a. Anthocyanin is another accessory pigment that absorbs bright red colors. There is also chlorophyll c and d that sometimes take the place of chlorophyll b.

Chromatography is a process used to separate mixtures that can separate plant pigments. This lab uses paper chromatography where a piece of paper is used to wick solvent up to the pigments and separate them according to solubilities. The rate of migration on a chromatogram is the Rf value.

 

Hypothesis

 

Plants contain several different pigments, and the rate of photosynthesis in plant cells is directly related to light and temperature.

 

Materials

 

Exercise 4A: Plant Pigment Chromatography

This exercise required 1 50-mL graduated cylinder, a small amount of a solvent, a stopper, filter paper, scissors, a pencil, spinach leaves, and a quarter.

Exercise 4B: Photosynthesis/The Light Reaction

The materials needed for this part of the lab were a spectrophotometer, a light, a water flask, a test tube rack, ice, 5 labeled cuvettes, lens tissue, foil, and parafilm. The substances put in the cuvettes were 5 mL of phosphate buffer, approximately 16 mL of distilled water, 9 drops of unboiled chloroplasts, and 3 drops of boiled chloroplasts.

 

Methods

 

Exercise 4A: Plant Pigment Chromatography

A 50-mL graduated cylinder was filled with about 1 cm of solvent and then tightly stoppered. The filter paper was then cut to a point on one end, and a line was drawn 1.5 cm above the point. Using the ribbed edge of a quarter, spinach cells were extracted onto the pencil line. This procedure was repeated 8-10 times using a new portion of the leaf each time. The filter paper was then placed in the cylinder with the tip barely touching the solvent and none of the edges touching the sides. When the solvent reached 1 cm below the top of the paper, it was removed from the cylinder. The solvent location was immediately marked, and then the bottom of each pigment band was also marked.

Exercise 4B: Photosynthesis/The Light Reaction

The spectrophotometer was set to 605 nm and allowed to warm up. The chloroplast suspensions were prepared the previous day, part of which were boiled, and stored on ice until they were ready for use. An incubation area was prepared with a flood light, water flask, and test tube rack, by using the flask as a heat sink between the light and the rack. Five cuvettes were numbered respectively and then wiped with lens tissue. The walls and bottom of cuvette 2 were covered with foil and a foil cap was made for the top.

To each cuvette 1 mL of phosphate buffer was added. Then, to cuvette 1 4 mL of distilled water was added, but to cuvettes 2, 3, and 4 3 mL of distilled water was added. Next, 1 mL of DPIP was added to cuvettes 2, 3,and 4. To cuvette 5, 3 mL plus 3 drops of distilled water were added and 1 mL of DPIP. To cuvette 1, 3 drops of unboiled chloroplasts were added.

The spectrophotometer was brought back to zero and the contents of cuvette 1 were mixed by inverting and placed in the sample holder. Cuvette 1 was used periodically through this experiment to recalibrate the spectrophotometer. Three drops of unboiled chloroplasts were added to cuvette 2. After removing the foil sleeve, it was placed in the sample holder and the transmittance was recorded. Additional readings were also taken at 5, 10, and 15 minutes. Next, three drops of unboiled chloroplasts were transferred to cuvette 3. The percent transmittance was recorded at 0, 5, 10, and 15 minutes. Three drops of boiled chloroplasts were added to cuvette 4, and the transmittances were recorded at the same times. Finally, cuvette 5 was mixed and placed in the sample holder. The transmittance readings were recorded.

 

 

Results

Table 4.1 Distance Moved by Pigment Band

 

 

Band Number	Distance (mm)	Band Color
1.	0 mm	Yellow-brown
2.	5 mm	Light green
3.	30 mm	Green
4.	48 mm	Yellow

 

Distance Solvent Front Moved 60 mm.

Table 4.2 Rf Values

 

 

0.8 = Rf for xanthophyll (yellow) 0.5 = Rf for chlorophyll a (bright green to blue green) 0 = Rf for chlorophyll b (yellow green to olive green)

 

Table 4.4 Transmittance (%)

 

 

 

Cuvette	0	5	10	15
2 Unboiled/Dark	41%	43%	44%	43%
3 Unboiled/Light	35%	38%	39%	37%
4 Boiled/Light	51%	52%	53%	54%
5 No Chloroplasts	57%	57%	56%	55%

 

Lab 4B Color Chart

 

 

Cuvette	Initial Color	Final Color
1	Clear	Clear
2	Light clear blue	Blue/green
3	Light clear blue	Dark clear blue
4	Light clear blue	Light clear blue
5	Light clear blue	Dark clear blue

 

Questions:
Exercise 4A: Plant Pigment Chromatography

 

What factors are involved in the separation of the pigments?

 

The solubility, size of particles, and their attractiveness to the paper are all involved in the separation.

 

Would you expect the Rf value of the pigment to be the same if a different solvent were used? Explain.

 

No, the different solubilities of the pigments would change the Rf values. For example chlorophyll b is only soluble to fat solutions.

 

What type of chlorophyll does the reaction center contain? What are the roles of the other pigments?

 

The reaction center contains chlorophyll a. The other pigments collect different light waves and transfer the energy to chlorophyll a.

 

Exercise 4B: Photosynthesis/The Light Reaction

 

What is the purpose of DPIP in this experiment?

 

DPIP is the electron acceptor in this experiment.

 

What molecule found in chloroplasts does DPIP “replace” in this experiment?

 

DPIP substitutes for the NADP molecules.

 

What is the source of the electrons that will reduce DPIP?

 

The electrons come from the photolysis of water.

 

What was measured with the spectrophotometer in this experiment?

 

The spectrophotometer measures the percentage of light transmittance through the cuvette due to DPIP reduction.

 

What is the effect of darkness on the reduction of DPIP? Explain.

 

The effect of darkness is that no reaction will occur.

 

What is the effect of boiling the chloroplasts on the subsequent reduction of DPIP? Explain.

 

Boiling denatures the protein molecules and stops the reduction.

 

What reasons can you give for the difference in the percent transmittance between the live chloroplasts that were incubated in the light and those that were kept in the dark?

 

In the dark cuvette, there was no light energy available, so there was no flow of electrons and no photolysis of water, while in the lighted cuvette these processes were allowed to continue.

 

Error Analysis
In Lab 4A, several mistakes could have been made with the chromatography paper. Too much handling, bending, or allowing the paper to touch the sides of the cylinder could all have affected the outcome of this experiment. The different pigment bands were also difficult to distinguish.

In Lab 4B, the procedure was very complicated and required a lot of pre-lab planning and reading. Incorrect usage of the spectrophotometer or neglecting to recalibrate often enough could have caused errors in this portion of the lab.

 

Discussion and Conclusion

Lab 4A demonstrated the different plant pigments by chromatography and showed how to calculate Rf values and explained their importance. There are 4-5 main pigments present in plants ranging from green to yellow in color. Lab 4B proves that light and chloroplasts are required for the light reactions of photosynthesis to occur. It showed the effects of boiling, denaturing, which did not allow photosynthesis to occur.

BACK

 

Introduction:
Cellular respiration is the release of energy from organic compounds by metabolic chemical oxidation in the mitochondria within a cell. There are a number of physical laws that relate to gases and are important in the understanding of how the equipment in this lab works. These are summarized as general gas laws that state: PV=nRT where: P stands for pressure of the gas, V stands for the volume of the gas, n stands for the number of molecules of gas there are, R stands for the gas constant, and T stands for the temperature of the gas. A respirometer is the system used to measure cellular respiration. Pressure changes in the respirometer are directly relative to a change in the amount of gas there is in the respirometer as long as the volume and the temperature of the respirometer do not change. To judge the consumption of oxygen in two different respirometers you must reach equilibrium in both respirometers.

Cellular respiration is the procedure of changing the chemical energy of organic molecules into a type that can be used by organisms. Glucose may be oxidized completely if an adequate amount of oxygen is present. The equation for cellular respiration is C6H12O6 + 6O2 à 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy. Carbon dioxide is formed as oxygen is used. The pressure due to CO2 might cancel out any changes due to the consumption of oxygen. To get rid of this problem, a chemical will be added that will selectively take out the carbon dioxide put off. Potassium hydroxide will chemically react with the carbon dioxide by this equation: CO2 + K2CO3 + H2O.

 

Hypothesis:
The rate of cellular respiration will be higher in germinating peas in cold and room temperature water baths than in that of the beads or non-germinating peas. The cooler temperature in the cold water baths should slow the process of cellular respiration in the peas.

 

Materials:
The materials used in this lab were the following: a water bath, a graduated cylinder, a thermometer, tape, metal washers, beads, germinating peas, non-germinating peas, beads, beakers, another graduated cylinder, ice, paper, and a pencil are needed for this lab.

 

Methods:
Obtain a room temperature water bath and a 10-degree Celsius water bath. Add ice to room temperature water and watch the thermometer until the temperature has reached 10-degrees Celsius. For respirometer one, obtain a graduated cylinder and fill it with 50mL of water. Drop in 25 germinating peas and determine the water displacement. Record the volume, remove the peas and place them on a paper towel. For respirometer two, obtain the same graduated cylinder, filled again with 50mL of water. Drop twenty-five of the non-germinating peas in the water and continue adding beads to the water until the same water displacement for the non-germinating peas equals the first result. Remove the contents, and drain the water leaving the peas and beads to dry on a paper towel. For respirometer three, fill the 100mL graduated cylinder with 50mL of water and obtain the first water displacement value by adding just beads to the water in the cylinder. Take out the beads, allow the water to drain, and repeat this same procedure for respirometers 4, 5, and 6, which will be placed in the cooler water. For assembly of the respirometers, obtain 6 vials, each with a stopper and a pipette. Place a small wad of absorbent cotton in the bottom of each vial and using a dropper, saturate the cotton with 15% KOH solution. Make sure the vials are dry on the inside. Do not get KOH on the sides of the respirometer. Place a small wad of non-absorbent cotton on top of the KOH saturated cotton, making sure the same amount is used for each respirometer. Place the first set of peas in their respective vials. Do the same for the second set of peas. Insert the stopper with the calibrated pipette. Place a weighted collar on the end of each vial. Make a sling of masking tape attached to each side of the water baths to hold the pipettes out of the water during the equilibration period of seven minutes. Vials 1, 2, and 3, should rest in the room temperature water while 4, 5, and 6, should rest in the 10-degree Celsius water bath. After seven minutes of equilibration, immerse all 6 respirometers entirely in their designated water baths. Water enters the pipette for a short distance and stops. If the water continues to move into a pipette, check for leaks. Working quickly, arrange the pipettes so the can be read through the water at the beginning of the experiment. These should not be shifted during the experiment. Keep hands out of the water bath after the experiment has started. Make sure a constant temperature is maintained. Allow respirometers to equilibrate three more minutes, record the initial position of the water in each pipette to the nearest .01mL. Check the temperature in both water baths and record in table 5.1. Check and record every five minutes for twenty minutes by repeating the procedure for that task.

Data:

 

Table 5.1

Beads Alone		Germinating Peas		Dry peas and Beads
Read-ing @ time X	Diff.	Reading @ time X	Diff.	Corrected Diff.	Reading @ time X	Diff.	Corrected Diff.
Initial-0	14.0	——-	13.5	——-	—–	14.1	—-	—-
0-5	14.1	-0.1	13.4	0.1	0.2	14.4	-.3	-.2
5-10	14.0	0	13.2	0.3	0.3	14.5	-.4	-.4
10-15	14.1	-0.1	12.8	0.7	0.8	14.6	-.5	-.4
15-20	14.4	-0.4	12.2	1.3	1.7	14.9	-.8	-.4
Initial-0	14.8	——-	14.0	——-	—–	15	—-	—-
0-5	14.8	0	13.0	1.0	1.0	14.8	.2	.2
5-10	14.7	0.1	12.2	1.8	1.7	14.6	.4	.3
10-15	14.4	0.4	10.3	3.7	3.3	14.4	.6	.2
15-20	14.3	0.5	9.8	4.2	3.7	14.3	.7	.2

Graph 5.1

Table 5.2

Graph 5.2

Questions:
In this activity, you are investigating both the effects of germination versus non-germination and warm temperature versus cold temperature on respiration rate. Identify the hypothesis being tested on this activity. The hypothesis of this experiment was: The rate of cellular respiration will be higher in germinating peas in cold and room temperature water baths than in that of the beads or non-germinating peas. The cooler temperature in the cold water baths should slow the process of cellular respiration in the peas.

 

This activity uses a number of controls. Identify at least three of the controls, and describe the purpose of each. First of all, the water baths held a constant temperature. Secondly, the volume of KOH was constant from vial to vial. Lastly, the equilibration period was identical for all the respirometers.

 

Describe and explain the relationship between the amount of oxygen consumed and time. The amount of oxygen that was consumed was the greatest in the warmer water. The oxygen consumption increased over time in the germinating peas.

 

Why is it necessary to correct the readings from the peas with the readings from the beads? This is necessary to show the actual rate at which cellular respiration occurs in peas. The beads served as a control variable.

 

Explain the effects of germination versus non-germination on peas seed respiration. The germinating seeds are alive and growing, therefore respirate to grow.

 

Explain the results shown in the sample graph in your lab manual. As the temperature increased, the enzymes denatured so germination was inhibited.

 

What is the purpose of KOH in this experiment? The KOH drops absorbed the carbon dioxide so that it would not cause the put off of that gas to make the readings equilibrate.

 

Why did the vial have to be completely sealed under the stopper? The stopper at the top of the vial had to be completely sealed so that no gas could leak out of the vial and no water would be allowed into the vial.

 

If you used the same experimental design to compare the rates of respiration of a 35g mammal at 100 degrees Celsius, what results would you expect? Explain your reasoning. Respiration would be higher in the mammal since they are warm-blooded.

 

If respiration in a small mammal were studied at both room temperature, 21-degrees Celsius and 10-degrees Celsius, what results would you predict? Explain your reasoning. Respiration would be higher at 21 degrees because the animal would have to keep its body temperature up. The results would multiply at 10-degrees because the mammal would have to keep its body that much warmer in comparison to the room temperature.

 

Explain why water moved into the respirometer pipettes. While the peas underwent cellular respiration, they consumed oxygen and released carbon dioxide which reacted with the KOH in the vial, resulting in a decrease of gas in the pipette. The water moved into the pipette because the vial and pipette were completely submerged into the bath.

 

Design an experiment to examine the rates of cellular respiration in peas that have been germinating for 0, 24, 48, and 72, hours. What results would you expect? Why? A person could set up four respirometers which have one of the following: Seeds that have not begun to germinate, seeds germinating for one day, seeds germinating for two days and seeds germinating for three days. The results would probably be that there would be no oxygen used by the seeds that have not germinated yet. The seeds that have been germinating for three days will have the greatest amount of oxygen consumption.

Error Analysis:
Error in this lab could have occurred if the seals on the vials weren’t tight and there was a leak of water into the vials. Another source of error could have been if the KOH had touched the sides of the vial. Also, the absorbent cotton balls that were used for the KOH could have been too saturated. Another source of error could be at the temperature of the water baths. If a close eye wasn’t kept on the temperature, the ten degree Celsius would have fallen in degrees.

Conclusion:
Oxygen consumption in respirometers with germinating peas is greater than in the respirometers with non-germinating peas. Respiration was affected by the temperature of the water bath as well. Respiration occurs faster in the warmer water baths.

Introduction to Biology Review

1. All living things are called _______________________.

2. The approximately 40 million types of living things on Earth are known as ______________________.  How many have been identified? __________________.

3. The land, water, and air on Earth that sustains life is known as the ___________________________.

4. A species is a group of organisms so similar to one another that they can _______________________ or _____________________________.

5. Evolution simply means ______________________________________.

6. When hereditary information from two parts of a single organism or from two organisms of the same species is combined it is called  _______________________.

7. An organism that must take in food is a(n) _________________________.

8. The encoded, genetic instructions for making many other molecules necessary for life is called  __________________. 

9.  Produces greatly magnified images of surface details ________________  _____________  __________________  or ______________.

10. Increase of an object’s apparent size is ________________________________.

11. The production of offspring is called __________________________________.

12. The formation of two cells from an existing cell is called ______________   _____________________________.

13. Produces a greatly magnified image of internal details ___________________  _______________   ______________ or _____________.

14. Ultimately, almost all living organisms get their energy from the _______________.

15. ______________________  reproduction involves no recombination of genetic material, or exact duplication of the parent.

16. ________________________ reproduction involves combining hereditary information from two  different species or from two organisms of the same species.

17. A short segment of DNA that contains instructions for a single trait is called a(n) __________________________.

18. What is the smallest unit of life capable of carrying out all life functions?

19. Sum of all chemical processes of an organism _______________________________.

20. Through the process of ____________________________________ plants capture the energy from the sun and change it into a form of energy that can be used by living things.

21. Capability of showing clear details refers to ________________________________.

22. The study of how organisms interact with each other and their environment is called ___________________________.

23. The process by which an adult organism arises is called _______________________.

24. When hereditary information from different organisms is not combined it is called __________________________ reproduction.

25. An organism that makes its own food is called a(n) __________________. Give an example.

26. To maintain their internal organization, all living things must have a constant supply of _____________________.

27. Reproduction involves the transfer of genetic information from _____________________  to ____________________.

28. The stable internal environment maintain by living things is called ________________.

29. The most important driving force in evolution is ____________________.

30. The scientific process that involves using the five senses is _______________________.

31. Data that are quantitative are always represented by __________________________.

32. A hypothesis is a statement that can be _______________________________.

33. A broad and comprehensive statement of what is believed to be true is a(n) ______________________________.

34. A small part used to represent an entire population is called a(n) __________________________________.

35. Organisms that are composed of only one cell are called _________________.

36. Organisms composed of more than one cell, such as a plant, are called ______________________.

37. What type of microscope has the greatest magnification?

38.  Cell division and cell enlargement together results in ____________________.

39. Cell division and cell differentiation results in ________________________.

40. How does a theory differ from a hypothesis?

41. List the six major characteristics of living things.

 

42.  Compare cell division in unicellular & multicellular organisms.

 

43. Why is it important for scientist to communicate about their work?

 

44. Why do scientists use SI rather than the system of measurement adopted for use in their own country?

45. How do autotrophs differ from heterotrophs in obtaining energy?

46.  Would a field biologist who studies the ecology of a bird species necessarily use the same scientific methods as a laboratory biologist who studies how a virus infects cells?  Why or Why Not?

47.  How does the growth of a nonliving thing differ from growth of a living thing?

48. Why are so many organisms yet to be discovered, identified, and described?

 

49. List the six major themes of biology.

 

CHAPTER 46, SECTION 1
THE HUMAN BODY PLAN
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF
ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGYREVIEW THE HUMAN BODY PLAN

SECTION 46-1,  THE HUMAN BODY PLAN

The human body begins to take shape during the earliest stages of embryonic development.  While the embryo is a tiny hallow ball of dividing cells, it begins forming the tissues and organs that compose the human body.  By the end of its third week, human embryo has bilateral symmetry (a body plan in which the left and right sides mirror each other) and is developing vertebrate characteristics that will support an upright body.

OBJECTIVES:  Define Anatomy and Physiology, and explain how they are related. List and describe the major characteristics of life. Define homeostasis, and explain its importance to survival. Describe a Homeostatic Mechanism.List and describe the four types of tissues that make up the human body.  Explain how tissues, organs, and organ systems are organized.  Summarize the functions of the primary organ systems in the human body. Name and locate four human body cavities, and describe the organs that each contain. Properly use terms that describe relative positions, body sections, and body regions.

1. The human body is a precisely structured container of Chemical Reactions.

2. Biology is the Study of Living Things including the Study of the Human Body.

3. The Study of BODY STRUCTURE, which includes Size, Shape, Composition, and perhaps even Coloration, is called ANATOMY.

4.  The Study of HOW the BODY FUNCTIONS is called PHYSIOLOGY.

5. The purpose of this course is to enable you to gain an understanding of Anatomy and Physiology with the emphasis on Normal Structure and Function.  You will examine the anatomy and physiology of the major body systems.

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION

1. CHEMICAL LEVEL

A. The Chemicals that make up the body may be divided into TWO major categories:  INORGANIC AND ORGANIC.

B. INORGANIC CHEMICALS are usually simple molecules made of one or more elements other than CARBON.  Examples:  Water, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide (an exception), and Minerals such as iron, calcium, and sodium.

C. ORGANIC CHEMICALS are often VERY Complex and ALWAYS CONTAIN THE ELEMENTS CARBON AND HYDROGEN.  Examples:  Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids.

2. CELLULAR LEVEL

A. The SMALLEST LIVING UNITS OF STRUCTURE AND FUCTION ARE CELLS.

B. Cells are the smallest living subunits of a multicellular organism such as a human being.

C. There are many different types of cells; each is made of chemicals and carries out specific chemical reactions.

3. TISSUE LEVEL

A. A Tissue is a group of cells with similar structure and function.

B. There are FOUR Groups of Tissue.

C. EPITHELIAL TISSUE – Cover or line body surfaces; some are capable of producing secretions with specific functions.  The outer layer of the Skin and Sweat Glands are examples of Epithelial Tissue.

D. CONNECTIVE TISSUE – Connects and supports parts of the body; some transport or store materials.  Blood, Bone, and Adipose Tissue (Fat) are examples.

E. MUSCLE TISSUE – Specialized for CONTRACTION, which brings about movement.  Our Skeleton Muscles and the Heart are examples.

F. NERVE TISSUE – Specialized to generate and transmit Electrochemical Impulses that regulate body functions.  The Brain and Optic Nerves are examples.

4. ORGAN LEVEL

A. An Organ is a group of TWO or more different types of Tissues precisely arranged so as to accomplish Specific Functions and usually have recognizable shape.

B. Heart, Brain, Kidneys, Liver, Lungs are Examples.

5. ORGAN SYSTEMS (System Level)

A. An Organ System is a group of organs that all contribute to a Particular Function.

B. Examples are the Circulatory, Respiratory, and Digestive Systems.

C. Each organ system carries out its own specific function, but for the organism to survive the organ systems must work together- this is called INTEGRATION OF ORGAN SYSTEM.

6. ORGANISM LEVEL

A. The MOST Complex Level.

B. ALL the Organ Systems of the body functioning with one another constitute the TOTAL ORGANISM – ONE LIVING INDIVIDUAL.

LIFE PROCESSES or CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

1. All living organisms carry on certain processes that set them apart from nonliving things.

2. The Following are Several of the more important life processes of Humans:

A. METABOLISM is the sum of all the chemical reactions that occur in the body.  One phase of Metabolism called CATABOLISM provides the ENERGY needed to sustain life by BREAKING DOWN substances such as food molecules.  The other phase called ANABOLISM uses the energy from catabolism to MAKE various substances that form body structures and enable them to function.

B. ASSIMILATION is the changing of Absorbed substances into forms that are chemically different from those that entered body fluids.

C. REPONSIVNESS is the ability to Detect and Respond to changes Outside or Inside the Body. Seeking Water to quench thirst is a response to water loss from body tissue.

D. MOVEMENT includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, or even structures inside cells.

E. GROWTH refers to an Increase in Body Size.  It may be due to an increase in the size of existing cells, the number of cells, or the amount of substance surrounding cells. It occurs whenever an organism produces new body materials faster than old ones are worn out or replaced.

F. DIFFERENTIATION is the process whereby unspecialized cells become specialized cells.  Specialized Cells differ in Structure and Function from the cells from which they originated.

G. REPRODUCTION refers either to the formation of new cells for Growth, Repair, or Replacement or to the making of a New Individual.

H. Others Include:
Respiration – obtaining Oxygen.
Digestion – Chemically and Mechanically breaking down food substances.
Absorption – The passage of substances through certain membranes.
Circulation – the movement of substances within the body in Body Fluids.
Excretion – Removal of wastes that the body produces.

MAINTENANCE OF LIFE OR SURVIVAL NEEDS

1. The structures and functions of almost all body parts help maintain the Life of the Organism. The ONLY Exceptions are an Organisms Reproductive Structures, which ensure that its species will continue into the future.

2. Life requires certain Environmental Factors, including the Following:

A. WATER – this is the most abundant chemical in the body and it is required for many Metabolic Processes and provides the environment in which Most of them take place. Water also transports substances within the organism and is important in regulating body temperature.

B. FOOD – the Substances that provide the body with necessary Chemicals (Nutrients) in addition to Water. Food is used for Energy, supply the raw materials for building new living matter, and still others help regulate vital chemical reactions.

C. OXYGEN – It is required to release Energy from food substances. This energy, in turn, drives metabolic processes. Approximately 20% of the air be breathe is oxygen.

D. HEAT (BODY TEMPERATURE) –  a form of energy, it is a product of Metabolic Reactions. Normal Body Temperature is around 37 C or 98 F. both low or high body temperatures are dangerous to the organism.

E. PRESSURE (ATMOSPHERIC) – Necessary for our Breathing.

PRINCPAL ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN BODY (TABLE 46-1)

1. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

A. The Skin and Structures derived from it, such as hair, nails, and sweat and oil glands.

B. Is a barrier to pathogens and chemicals (Protects the body), Helps regulate body temperature, Eliminates waste, Helps synthesize vitamin D, and receives certain stimuli such as Temperature, Pressure, and Pain.

2. SKELETAL SYSTEM

A. All the Bones of the body (206), their associated Cartilage, and the Joints of the Body.

B. Bones Support and Protect the body, assist in body movement, They also house cells that produce blood cells, and they store minerals.

3. MUSCULAR SYSTEM

A. Specifically refers to Skeletal Muscle Tissue and Tendons.

B. Participates in bringing about movement, maintaining posture, and produces heat.

4. CIRCULATORY A nd CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

A. The Heart, Blood and Blood Vessels.

B. Transports oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removes waste.

5. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM- Sometimes included with the Immune System or Circulatory System becuase it works closely with Both Systems.

A. The Lymph, Lymphatic Vessels, and Structures or Organs (Spleen and Lymph Nodes) containing Lymph Tissue.

B. Cleans and Returns tissue fluid to the blood and destroys pathogens that enter the body.

6. NERVOUS SYSTEM

A. The Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves, and Sense Organs, such as the eye and ear.

B. Interprets sensory information, Regulates body functions such as movement by means of Electrochemical Impulses.

7. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

A. ALL Hormone producing Glands and Cells such as the Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland, and Pancreas.

B. Regulates body functions by means of Hormones.

8. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

A. The Lungs and a series of associated passageways such as the Pharynx (Throat), Larynx (Voice Box), Trachea (Windpipe), and Bronchial Tubes leading into and out of them.

B. Exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and blood.

9. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

A. A long tube called the Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract and associated organs such as the Salivary Glands, Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas.

B. Breaks down and absorbs food for use by cells and eliminates solid and other waste.

10. URINARY And EXCRETORY SYSTEMS

A. The Kidneys, Urinary Bladder, and Urethra that together produce, store, and eliminate Urine.

B. Removes waste products from the blood and regulates volume and pH of blood.

11. IMMUNE SYSTEM

A.  The Immune System Consists of Several Organs, as well as White Blood Cells in the Blood and Lymph.
Includes the Lymph Nodes, Spleen, Lymph Vessels,Blood Vessels, Bone Marrow, and White Blood Cells (Lymphocytes).

B. Provides protection against Infection and Disease.

12. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

A. Organs that produce, store, and transport reproductive cells (Sperm and Eggs).

B. Produces eggs and sperm, in women, provides a site for the developing embryo-fetus.

HOMEOSTASIS

1.  All of the above systems function together to help the Human Body to Maintain HOMEOSTASIS.

2.   A person who is in good health is in a state of Homeostasis.

3.   Homeostasis reflects the ability of the body to maintain relative Stability and to Function Normally despite constant Changes.

4.   Changes may be External or Internal, and the body must Respond Appropriately.

5.   As we continue to study the Human Body, keep in mind that the Proper Functioning of each Organ and Organ System has a role to perform in maintaining HOMEOSTASIS.

6.  The Human Body uses Homeostasis Mechanisms to maintain its stable internal environment. Homeostasis Mechanisms work much like a Thermostat (NEGATIVE FEEDBACK) that is sensitive to temperature and maintains a relative constant room temperature whether the room gets to Hot or Cold.

BODY CAVITIES

1. Many  organs and organ systems in the human body are housed in compartments called BODY CAVITIES. (Figure 46-2)

2.  These cavities protect delicate internal organs from injuries and from the daily wear of walking, jumping, or running.

3.  The body cavities also permit organs such as the lungs, the urinary bladder, and the stomach to expand and contract while remaining securely supported.

4.  The human body has FOUR Main Body Cavities:

A.  CRANIAL CAVITY – encases the brain.

B.  SPINAL CAVITY – extending from the cranial cavity to the base of the spine, surrounds the Spinal Cord.

THE TWO MAIN CAVITIES IN THE TRUNK OF THE HUMAN BODY ARE SEPARATED BY A WALL OF MUSCLE CALLED THE DIAPHRAGM.

C. THORACIC CAVITY – The upper compartment, contains the heart, the esophagus, and the organs of the respiratory system – the lungs, trachea, and bronchi.

D.  ABDOMINAL CAVITY – The lower compartment, contains organs of the digestive, reproductive, and excretory systems.

ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY

To communicate effectively with one another, researchers and clinicians have develop a set of Terms to describe anatomy that have precise meaning.  Use of these terms assumes the body in the ANATOMICAL POSITION.  This means that the body is standing erect, face forward with upper limbs at the sides and with the palms forward.

RELATIVE POSITION

Terms of Relative position describe the location of one body part with respect to another.  The include the following:

1. SUPERIOR – means that a body part is above another part or is closer to the head.

2. INFERIOR – means that a body part is below another body part or toward the feet.

3. ANTERIOR – means toward the front.

4. VENTRAL – also means toward the front

5. POSTERIOR – is the opposite of anterior; it means toward the back.

6. DORSAL – also is the opposite of anterior; it means toward the back.

7. MEDIAL – relates to an imaginary midline dividing the body in equal right and left halves. Sample:  The nose is medial to the eyes.

8. LATERAL – means toward the side with respect to the imaginary midline.  Sample:  The ears are lateral to the eyes.

9. PROXIMAL – describes a body part that is closer to a point of attachment or closer to the trunk of the body than another part.  Sample:  The elbow is proximal to the wrist.

10. DISTAL – is the opposite of proximal.  It means that a particular body part is farther from the point of attachment or farther from the trunk of the body than another part.  Sample:  The fingers are distal to the wrist.

11. SUPERFICIAL – means situated near the surface.

12. PERIPHERAL – also means outward or near the surface.

13. DEEP – describes parts that are more internal.

14. CORTEX  –  the outer layer of an organ

15. MEDULLA –  the inner portion of an organ.