| Circulation in Animals |
| 1. |
Describe the need for circulatory and respiratory systems due to increasing animal body size. |
| 2. |
Explain how a gastrovascular cavity functions in part as a circulatory system. |
| 3. |
Distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems. List the three basic components common to both systems. |
| 4. |
List the structural components of a vertebrate circulatory system and relate their structure to their functions. |
| 5. |
Describe the general relationship between metabolic rates and the structure of the vertebrate circulatory system. |
| 6. |
Using diagrams, compare and contrast the circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, non-bird reptiles, and mammals or birds. |
| 7. |
Distinguish between pulmonary and systemic circuits and explain the functions of each. |
| 8. |
Explain the advantage of double circulation over a single circuit. |
| 9. |
Define a cardiac cycle, distinguish between systole and diastole, and explain what causes the first and second heart sounds. |
| 10. |
Define cardiac output and describe two factors that influence it. |
| 11. |
List the four heart valves, describe their location, and explain their functions. |
| 12. |
Define heart murmur and explain its cause. |
| 13. |
Define sinoatrial (SA) node and describe its location in the heart. |
| 14. |
Distinguish between a myogenic heart and a neurogenic heart. |
| 15. |
Describe the origin and pathway of the action potential (cardiac impulse) in the normal human heart. |
| 16. |
Explain how the pace of the SA node can be modulated by nerves, hormones, body temperature, and exercise. |
| 17. |
Relate the structures of capillaries, arteries, and veins to their functions. |
| 18. |
Explain why blood flow through capillaries is substantially slower than it is through arteries and veins. |
| 19. |
Define blood pressure and describe how it is measured. |
| 20. |
Explain how peripheral resistance and cardiac output affect blood pressure. |
| 21. |
Explain how blood returns to the heart even though it must sometimes travel from the lower extremities against gravity. |
| 22. |
Explain how blood flow through capillary beds is regulated. |
| 23. |
Explain how osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure regulate the exchange of fluid and solutes across capillaries. |
| 24. |
Describe the composition of lymph and explain how the lymphatic system helps the normal functioning of the circulatory system. Explain the role of lymph nodes in body defense. |
| 25. |
Describe the composition and functions of plasma. |
| 26. |
Relate the structure of erythrocytes to their function. |
| 27. |
List the five main types of white blood cells and characterize their functions. |
| 28. |
Describe the structure of platelets. |
| 29. |
Outline the formation of erythrocytes from their origin from stem cells in the red marrow of bones to their destruction by phagocytic cells. |
| 30. |
Describe the hormonal control of erythrocyte production. |
| 31. |
Outline the sequence of events that occurs during blood clotting and explain what prevents spontaneous clotting in the absence of injury. |
| 32. |
Distinguish between a heart attack and a stroke. |
| 33. |
Distinguish between low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs). |
| 34. |
List the factors that have been correlated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. |
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Gas Exchange in Animals |
| 35. |
Define gas exchange and distinguish between a respiratory medium and a respiratory surface. |
| 36. |
Describe the general requirements for a respiratory surface and list a variety of respiratory organs that meet these requirements. |
| 37. |
Describe respiratory adaptations of aquatic animals. |
| 38. |
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of water as a respiratory medium. |
| 39. |
Describe countercurrent exchange and explain why it is more efficient than the concurrent flow of water and blood. |
| 40. |
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of air as a respiratory medium and explain how insect tracheal systems are adapted for efficient gas exchange in a terrestrial environment. |
| 41. |
For the human respiratory system, describe the movement of air through air passageways to the alveolus, listing the structures that air must pass through on its journey. |
| 42. |
Compare positive and negative pressure breathing. Explain how respiratory movements in humans ventilate the lungs. |
| 43. |
Distinguish between tidal volume, vital capacity, and residual volume. |
| 44. |
Explain how the respiratory systems of birds and mammals differ. |
| 45. |
Explain how breathing is controlled in humans. |
| 46. |
Define partial pressure and explain how it influences diffusion across respiratory surfaces. |
| 47. |
Describe the adaptive advantage of respiratory pigments in circulatory systems. Distinguish between hemocyanin and hemoglobin as respiratory pigments. |
| 48. |
Draw the Hb-oxygen dissociation curve, explain the significance of its shape, and explain how the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen changes with oxygen concentration. |
| 49. |
Describe how carbon dioxide is picked up at the tissues and deposited in the lungs. |
| 50. |
Describe the respiratory adaptations of the pronghorn that give it great speed and endurance. |
| 51. |
Describe respiratory adaptations of diving mammals and the role of myoglobin. |
