1st Semester 72 - BIOLOGY JUNCTION

Chapter 25 AP Objectives

Chapter 25 Tracing Phylogeny

Objectives

Phylogenies are Based on Common Ancestries
1.	Distinguish between phylogeny and systematics.
2.	Describe the process of sedimentation and the formation of fossils. Explain which portions of organisms are most likely to fossilize.
3.	Explain why it is crucial to distinguish between homology and analogy before selecting characters to use in the reconstruction of phylogeny.
4.	Explain why bird and bat wings are homologous as vertebrate forelimbs but analogous as wings.
5.	Define molecular systematics. Explain some of the problems that systematists may face in carrying out molecular comparisons of nucleic acids.

	Phylogenetic Systematics: Connecting Classification with Evolutionary History
6.	Explain the following characteristics of the Linnaean system of classification: a. binomial nomenclature b. hierarchical classification
7.	List the major taxonomic categories from most to least inclusive.
8.	Define a clade. Distinguish between a monophyletic clade and paraphyletic and polyphyletic groupings of species.
9.	Distinguish between shared primitive characters and shared derived characters.
10.	Explain how shared derived characters can be used to construct a phylogenetic diagram.
11.	Explain how outgroup comparison can be used to distinguish between shared primitive characters and shared derived characters.
12.	Define an ingroup.
13.	Distinguish between a phylogram and an ultrameric tree.
14.	Discuss how systematists use the principles of maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood in reconstructing phylogenies.
15.	Explain why any phylogenetic diagram represents a hypothesis about evolutionary relationships among organisms.
16.	Distinguish between orthologous and paralogous genes. Explain how gene duplication has led to families of paralogous genes.
17.	Explain how molecular clocks are used to determine the approximate time of key evolutionary events. Explain how molecular clocks are calibrated in actual time.
18.	Describe some of the limitations of molecular clocks.
19.	Explain the neutral theory of evolutionary change.
20.	Explain how scientists determined the approximate time when HIV-1 M first infected humans.
21.	Describe the evidence that suggests there is a universal tree of life.

BACK

Chapter 26 Early Earth & the Origin of Life

Chapter 26 Early Earth & the Origin of Life

Objectives

The Origin of Life
1.	Describe the four stages of the hypothesis for the origin of life on Earth by chemical evolution.
2.	Describe the contributions that A. I. Oparin, J.B.S. Haldane, and Stanley Miller made toward developing a model for the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules. Describe the conditions and locations where most of these chemical reactions probably occurred on Earth.
3.	Describe the evidence that suggests that RNA was the first genetic material. Explain the significance of the discovery of ribozymes.
4.	Describe how natural selection may have worked in an early RNA world.
5.	Describe how natural selection may have favored the proliferation of stable protobionts with self-replicating, catalytic RNA.

	Introduction to the History of Life
6.	Explain how the histories of Earth and life are inseparable.
7.	Explain how index fossils can be used to determine the relative age of fossil-bearing rock strata. Explain how radiometric dating can be used to determine the absolute age of rock strata. Explain how magnetism can be used to date rock strata.
8.	Describe the major events in Earth’s history from its origin until 2 billion years ago. In particular, note when Earth first formed, when life first evolved, and what forms of life existed in each eon.
9.	Describe the mass extinctions of the Permian and Cretaceous periods. Discuss a hypothesis that accounts for each of these mass extinctions.

	The Major Lineages of Life
10.	Describe how chemiosmotic ATP production may have arisen.
11.	Describe the timing and significance of the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis.
12.	Explain the endosymbiotic theory for the evolution of the eukaryotic cell. Describe the evidence that supports this theory.
13.	Explain how genetic annealing may have led to modern eukaryotic genomes.
14.	Describe the timing of key events in the evolution of the first eukaryotes and later multicellular eukaryotes.
15.	Explain how the snowball-Earth hypothesis explains why multicellular eukaryotes were so limited in size, diversity, and distribution until the late Proterozoic.
16.	Describe the key evolutionary adaptations that arose as life colonized land.
17.	Explain how continental drift explains Australia’s unique flora and fauna.
18.	Explain why R. H. Whittaker’s five-kingdom system has been replaced by a new system with three domains.

BACK

Chapter 14 – Mendel Objectives

Chapter 14 Mendel & the Gene Idea

Objectives

Gregor Mendel’s Discoveries
1.	Explain how Mendel’s particulate mechanism differed from the blending theory of inheritance.
2.	Define the following terms: true-breeding, hybridization, monohybrid cross, P generation, F1 generation, and F2 generation.
3.	List and explain the four components of Mendel’s hypothesis that led him to deduce the law of segregation.
4.	Use a Punnett square to predict the results of a monohybrid cross, stating the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation.
5.	Distinguish between the following pairs of terms: dominant and recessive; heterozygous and homozygous; genotype and phenotype.
6.	Explain how a testcross can be used to determine if an individual with the dominant phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous.
7.	Use a Punnett square to predict the results of a dihybrid cross and state the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation.
8.	State Mendel’s law of independent assortment and describe how this law can be explained by the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis.
9.	Use the rule of multiplication to calculate the probability that a particular F2 individual will be homozygous recessive or dominant.
10.	Given a Mendelian cross, use the rule of addition to calculate the probability that a particular F2 individual will be heterozygous.
11.	Use the laws of probability to predict, from a trihybrid cross between two individuals that are heterozygous for all three traits, what expected proportion of the offspring would be: a. homozygous dominant for the three traits b. heterozygous for all three traits c. homozygous recessive for two specific traits and heterozygous for the third
12.	Explain why it is important that Mendel used large sample sizes in his studies.

	Extending Mendelian Genetics
13.	Give an example of incomplete dominance and explain why it does not support the blending theory of inheritance.
14.	Explain how phenotypic expression of the heterozygote differs with complete dominance, incomplete dominance, and codominance.
15.	Explain why Tay-Sachs disease is considered recessive at the organismal level but codominant at the molecular level.
16.	Explain why genetic dominance does not mean that a dominant allele subdues a recessive allele. Illustrate your explanation with the use of round versus wrinkled pea seed shape.
17.	Explain why dominant alleles are not necessarily more common in a population. Illustrate your explanation with an example.
18.	Describe the inheritance of the ABO blood system and explain why the IA and IB alleles are said to be codominant.
19.	Define and give examples of pleiotropy and epistasis.
20.	Describe a simple model for polygenic inheritance and explain why most polygenic characters are described in quantitative terms.
21.	Describe how environmental conditions can influence the phenotypic expression of a character. Explain what is meant by “a norm of reaction.”
22.	Distinguish between the specific and broad interpretations of the terms phenotype and genotype.

	Mendelian Inheritance in Humans
23.	Explain why studies of human inheritance are not as easily conducted as Mendel’s work with his peas.
24.	Given a simple family pedigree, deduce the genotypes for some of the family members.
25.	Explain how a lethal recessive allele can be maintained in a population.
26.	Describe the inheritance and expression of cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease, and sickle-cell disease.
27.	Explain why lethal dominant genes are much rarer than lethal recessive genes.
28.	Give an example of a late-acting lethal dominant gene in humans and explain how it can escape elimination by natural selection.
29.	Define and give examples of multifactorial disorders in humans.
30.	Explain how carrier recognition, fetal testing, and newborn screening can be used in genetic screening and counseling.

BACK

Chapter 1 AP Objectives

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: THEMES IN THE STUDY OF LIFE
OBJECTIVES
Exploring Life on Its Many Levels 1. Briefly describe the unifying themes that characterize the biological sciences. 2. Diagram the hierarchy of structural levels in biological organization. 3. Explain how the properties of life emerge from complex organization. 4. Describe the two major dynamic processes of any ecosystem. 5. Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. 6. Describe the basic structure and function of DNA. 7. Describe the dilemma of reductionism. 8. Discuss the goals and activities of systems biology. List three research developments that have advanced systems biology. 9. Explain the importance of regulatory mechanisms in living things. Distinguish between positive and negative feedback. Evolution, Unity, and Diversity 10. Distinguish among the three domains of life. List and distinguish among the three kingdoms of multicellular, eukaryotic life. 11. Explain the phrase “life’s dual nature of unity and diversity.” 12. Describe the observations and inferences that led Charles Darwin to his theory of evolution by natural selection. 13. Explain why diagrams of evolutionary relationships have a treelike form. The Process of Science 14. Distinguish between discovery science and hypothesis-based science. Explain why both types of exploration contribute to our understanding of nature. 15. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative data. 16. Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning. 17. Explain why hypotheses must be testable and falsifiable but are not provable. 18. Describe what is meant by a controlled experiment. 19. Distinguish between the everyday meaning of the term theory and its meaning to scientists. 20. Explain how science is influenced by social and cultural factors. 21. Distinguish between science and technology. Explain how science and technology are interdependent.
	BACK

Chapter 15 – Chromosomal Basis of Heredity Objectives

Chapter 15 Chromosomal Basis of Heredity
Objectives
Relating Mendelian Inheritance to the Behavior of Chromosomes 1. Explain how the observations of cytologists and geneticists provided the basis for the chromosome theory of inheritance. 2. Explain why Drosophila melanogaster is a good experimental organism for genetic studies. 3. Explain why linked genes do not assort independently. 4. Distinguish between parental and recombinant phenotypes. 5. Explain how crossing over can unlink genes. 6. Explain how Sturtevant created linkage maps. 7. Define a map unit. 8. Explain why Mendel did not find linkage between seed color and flower color, despite the fact that these genes are on the same chromosome. 9. Explain how genetic maps are constructed for genes located far apart on a chromosome. 10. Explain the effect of multiple crossovers between loci. 11. Explain what additional information cytogenetic maps provide. Sex Chromosomes 12. Describe how sex is genetically determined in humans and explain the significance of the SRY gene. 13. Distinguish between linked genes and sex-linked genes. 14. Explain why sex-linked diseases are more common in human males. 15. Describe the inheritance patterns and symptoms of color blindness, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and hemophilia. 16. Describe the process of X inactivation in female mammals. Explain how this phenomenon produces the tortoiseshell coloration in cats. Errors and Exceptions in Chromosomal Inheritance 17. Explain how nondisjunction can lead to aneuploidy. 18. Define trisomy, triploidy, and polyploidy. Explain how these major chromosomal changes occur and describe possible consequences. 19. Distinguish among deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. 20. Describe the type of chromosomal alterations responsible for the following human disorders: Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, extra Y, triple-X syndrome, Turner syndrome, cri du chat syndrome, and chronic myelogenous leukemia. 21. Define genomic imprinting. Describe the evidence that suggests that the Igf2 gene is maternally imprinted. 22. Explain why extranuclear genes are not inherited in a Mendelian fashion.
	BACK