My Classroom Material 153 - BIOLOGY JUNCTION

Chapter 47 AP Obj Animal Development

Chapter 47 Animal Development

Objectives

The Stages of Embryonic Development in Animals
1.	Compare the concepts of preformation and epigenesis.
2.	List the two functions of fertilization.
3.	Describe the acrosomal reaction and explain how it ensures that gametes are conspecific.
4.	Describe the cortical reaction.
5.	Explain how the fast and slow blocks to polyspermy function sequentially to prevent multiple sperm from fertilizing the egg.
6.	Describe the changes that occur in an activated egg and explain the importance of cytoplasmic materials to egg activation.
7.	Compare fertilization in a sea urchin and in a mammal.
8.	Describe the general process of cleavage.
9.	Explain the importance of embryo polarity during cleavage. Compare the characteristics of the animal hemisphere, vegetal hemisphere, and gray crescent in amphibian embryos.
10.	Describe the formation of a blastula in sea urchin, amphibian, and bird embryos. Distinguish among meroblastic cleavage, holoblastic cleavage, and the formation of the blastoderm.
11.	Describe the product of cleavage in an insect embryo.
12.	Describe the process of gastrulation and explain its importance. Explain how this process rearranges the embryo. List adult structures derived from each of the primary germ layers.
13.	Compare gastrulation in a sea urchin, a frog, and a chick.
14.	Describe the formation of the notochord, neural tube, and somites in a frog.
15.	Describe the significance and fate of neural crest cells. Explain why neural crest cells have been called a “fourth germ layer.”
16.	List and explain the functions of the extraembryonic membranes in reptile eggs.
17.	Describe the events of cleavage in a mammalian embryo. Explain the significance of the inner cell mass.
18.	Explain the role of the trophoblast in implantation of a human embryo.
19.	Explain the functions of the extraembryonic membranes in mammalian development.

	The Cellular and Molecular Basis of Morphogenesis and Differentiation in Animals
20.	Describe the significance of changes in cell shape and cell position during embryonic development. Explain how these cellular processes occur. Describe the process of convergent extension.
21.	Describe the role of the extracellular matrix in embryonic development.
22.	Describe the locations and functions of cell adhesion molecules.
23.	Describe the two general principles that integrate our knowledge of the genetic and cellular mechanisms underlying differentiation.
24.	Describe the process of fate mapping and the significance of fate maps.
25.	Describe the two important conclusions that have resulted from the experimental manipulation of parts of embryos and the use of fate maps.
26.	Explain how the three body axes are established in early amphibian and chick development.
27.	Explain the significance of SpemannÕs organizer in amphibian development.
28.	Explain what is known about the molecular basis of induction.
29.	Explain pattern formation in a developing chick limb, including the roles of the apical ectodermal ridge and the zone of polarizing activity.
30.	Explain how a limb bud is directed to develop into either a forelimb or a hind limb.

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Chapter 8 Membrane Structure Objectives

Chapter 8 Introduction to Metabolism
Objectives
Metabolism, Energy, and Life 1. Explain the role of catabolic and anabolic pathways in cellular metabolism. 2. Distinguish between kinetic and potential energy. 3. Explain why an organism is considered an open system. 4. Explain the first and second laws of thermodynamics in your own words. 5. Explain why highly ordered living organisms do not violate the second law of thermodynamics. 6. Write and define each component of the equation for free-energy change. 7. Distinguish between exergonic and endergonic reactions in terms of free energy change. 8. Explain why metabolic disequilibrium is one of the defining features of life. 9. List the three main kinds of cellular work. Explain in general terms how cells obtain the energy to do cellular work. 10. Describe the structure of ATP and identify the major class of macromolecules to which ATP belongs. 11. Explain how ATP performs cellular work. Enzymes Are Catalytic Proteins 12. Describe the function of enzymes in biological systems. 13. Explain why an investment of activation energy is necessary to initiate a spontaneous reaction. 14. Explain how enzyme structure determines enzyme specificity. 15. Explain the induced-fit model of enzyme function. 16. Describe the mechanisms by which enzymes lower activation energy. 17. Explain how substrate concentration affects the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. 18. Explain how temperature, pH, cofactors, and enzyme inhibitors can affect enzyme activity. The Control of Metabolism 19. Explain how metabolic pathways are regulated. 20. Explain how the location of enzymes in a cell may help order metabolism
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Chapter 48 AP Obj Nervous Systems

Chapter 48 Nervous Systems

Objectives

An Overview of Nervous Systems
1.	Compare and contrast the nervous systems of the following animals and explain how variations in design and complexity relate to their phylogeny, natural history, and habitat: hydra, sea star, planarian, insect, squid, and vertebrate.
2.	Name the three stages in the processing of information by nervous systems.
3.	Distinguish among sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.
4.	List and describe the major parts of a neuron and explain the function of each.
5.	Describe the function of astrocytes, radial glia, oligodendrocytes, and Schwann cells.

	The Nature of Nerve Signals
6.	Define a membrane potential and a resting potential.
7.	Describe the factors that contribute to a membrane potential.
8.	Explain why the membrane potential of a resting neuron is typically around 260 to 280 mV.
9.	Explain the role of the sodium-potassium pump in maintaining the resting potential.
10.	Distinguish between gated and ungated ion channels and among stretch-gated ion channels, ligand-gated ion channels, and voltage-gated ion channels.
11.	Define a graded potential and explain how it is different from a resting potential or an action potential.
12.	Describe the characteristics of an action potential. Explain the role of voltage-gated ion channels in this process.
13.	Describe the two main factors that underlie the repolarizing phase of the action potential.
14.	Define the refractory period.
15.	Explain how an action potential is propagated along an axon.
16.	Describe the factors that affect the speed of action potentials along an axon and describe adaptations that increase the speed of propagation. Describe saltatory conduction.
17.	Compare an electrical synapse and a chemical synapse.
18.	Describe the structures of a chemical synapse and explain how they transmit an action potential from one cell to another.
19.	Explain how excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) affect the postsynaptic membrane potential.
20.	Define summation and distinguish between temporal and spatial summation. Explain how summation applies to EPSPs and IPSPs.
21.	Explain the role of the axon hillock.
22.	Describe the role of signal transduction pathways in indirect synaptic transmission.
23.	Describe the specific properties of the neurotransmitters acetylcholine and biogenic amines.
24.	Identify and describe the functions of the four amino acids and several neuropeptides that work as neurotransmitters.
25.	Explain how endorphins function as natural analgesics.
26.	Describe the roles of nitric oxide and carbon monoxide as local regulators.

	Vertebrate Nervous Systems
27.	Compare the structures and functions of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
28.	Distinguish between the functions of the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system.
29.	Describe the embryonic development of the vertebrate brain.
30.	Describe the structures and functions of the following brain regions: medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, cerebellum, thalamus, epithalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebrum.
31.	Describe the specific functions of the reticular system.
32.	Explain how the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) function as a mammalian biological clock.
33.	Relate the specific regions of the cerebrum to their functions.
34.	Distinguish between the functions of the left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum.
35.	Describe the specific functions of the brain regions associated with language, speech, emotions, memory, and learning.
36.	Explain the possible role of long-term potentiation in memory storage and learning in the vertebrate brain.
37.	Describe our current understanding of human consciousness.
38.	Explain how research on stem cells and neural development may lead to new treatments for injuries and disease.
39.	Describe current treatments for schizophrenia.
40.	Distinguish between bipolar disorder and major depression.
41.	Describe the symptoms and brain pathology that characterize Alzheimer’s disease. Discuss possible treatments for this disease.
42.	Explain the cause of Parkinson’s disease.

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Chapter 9 – Cellular Respiration Objectives

Chapter 9 Cellular Respiration
Objectives
The Principles of Energy Harvest 1. In general terms, distinguish between fermentation and cellular respiration. 2. Write the summary equation for cellular respiration. Write the specific chemical equation for the degradation of glucose. 3. Define oxidation and reduction. 4. Explain in general terms how redox reactions are involved in energy exchanges. 5. Describe the role of NAD+ in cellular respiration. 6. In general terms, explain the role of the electron transport chain in cellular respiration. The Process of Cellular Respiration 7. Name the three stages of cellular respiration and state the region of the eukaryotic cell where each stage occurs. 8. Describe how the carbon skeleton of glucose changes as it proceeds through glycolysis. 9. Explain why ATP is required for the preparatory steps of glycolysis. 10. Identify where substrate-level phosphorylation and the reduction of NAD+ occur in glycolysis. 11. Describe where pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl CoA, what molecules are produced, and how this process links glycolysis to the citric acid cycle. 12. List the products of the citric acid cycle. Explain why it is called a cycle. 13. Describe the point at which glucose is completely oxidized during cellular respiration. 14. Distinguish between substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation. 15. In general terms, explain how the exergonic “slide” of electrons down the electron transport chain is coupled to the endergonic production of ATP by chemiosmosis. 16. Explain where and how the respiratory electron transport chain creates a proton gradient. 17. Describe the structure and function of the four subunits of ATP synthase. 18. Summarize the net ATP yield from the oxidation of a glucose molecule by constructing an ATP ledger. 19. Explain why it is not possible to state an exact number of ATP molecules generated by the oxidation of glucose. Related Metabolic Processes 20. State the basic function of fermentation. 21. Compare the fate of pyruvate in alcohol fermentation and in lactic acid fermentation. 22. Compare the processes of fermentation and cellular respiration. 23. Describe the evidence that suggests that glycolysis is an ancient metabolic pathway. 24. Describe how food molecules other than glucose can be oxidized to make ATP. 25. Explain how glycolysis and the citric acid cycle can contribute to anabolic pathways. 26. Explain how ATP production is controlled by the cell, and describe the role that the allosteric enzyme phosphofructokinase plays in the process.
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Chapter 49 AP Obj Sensory

Chapter 49 Sensory & Motor Mechanisms

Objectives

Sensing, Acting, and Brains
1.	Differentiate between sensation and perception.

	Introduction to Sensory Reception
2.	Explain the difference between exteroreceptors and interoreceptors.
3.	Describe the four general functions of receptor cells as they convert energy stimuli into changes in membrane potentials and then transmit signals to the central nervous system.
4.	Distinguish between sensory transduction and receptor potential.
5.	Explain the importance of sensory adaptation.
6.	List the five types of sensory receptors and explain the energy transduced by each type.

	Hearing and Equilibrium
7.	Explain the role of mechanoreceptors in hearing and balance.
8.	Describe the structure and function of invertebrate statocysts.
9.	Explain how insects may detect sound.
10.	Refer to a diagram of the human ear and give the function of each structure.
11.	Explain how the mammalian ear functions as a hearing organ.
12.	Explain how the mammalian ear functions to maintain body balance and equilibrium.
13.	Describe the hearing and equilibrium systems of nonmammalian vertebrates.

	Chemoreception: Taste and Smell
14.	Explain how the chemoreceptors involved with taste function in insects and humans.
15.	Describe what happens after an odorant binds to an odorant receptor on the plasma membrane of the olfactory cilia.
16.	Explain the basis of the sensory discrimination of human smell.

	Photoreceptors and Vision
17.	Compare the structures of, and processing of light by, the eyecups of Planaria, the compound eye of insects, and the single-lens eyes of molluscs.
18.	Refer to a diagram of the vertebrate eye to identify and give the function of each structure.
19.	Describe the functions of the rod cells and cone cells of the vertebrate eye.
20.	Explain and compare how the rods and cones of the retina transduce stimuli into action potentials.
21.	Explain how the retina assists the cerebral cortex in the processing of visual information.

	Movement and Locomotion
22.	Describe three functions of a skeleton.
23.	Describe how hydrostatic skeletons function and explain why they are not found in large terrestrial organisms.
24.	Distinguish between an exoskeleton and an endoskeleton.
25.	Explain how the structure of the arthropod exoskeleton provides both strength and flexibility.
26.	Explain how a skeleton combines with an antagonistic muscle arrangement to provide a mechanism for movement.
27.	Explain how body proportions and posture impact physical support on land.
28.	Using a diagram, identify the components of a skeletal muscle cell.
29.	Explain the sliding-filament model of muscle contraction.
30.	Explain how muscle contraction is controlled.
31.	Explain how the nervous system produces graded contraction of whole muscles.
32.	Explain the adaptive advantages of slow and fast muscle fibers.
33.	Distinguish among skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
34.	List the advantages and disadvantages associated with moving through: a. an aquatic environment b. a terrestrial environment c. air
35.	Discuss the factors that affect the energy cost of locomotion.

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