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Chapter 9 – Cellular Respiration Objectives

 

 

Chapter 9    Cellular Respiration
Objectives
The Principles of Energy Harvest

1.  In general terms, distinguish between fermentation and cellular respiration.

2.  Write the summary equation for cellular respiration. Write the specific chemical equation for the degradation of glucose.

3.  Define oxidation and reduction.

4.  Explain in general terms how redox reactions are involved in energy exchanges.

5.  Describe the role of NAD+ in cellular respiration.

6.  In general terms, explain the role of the electron transport chain in cellular respiration.

The Process of Cellular Respiration

7.  Name the three stages of cellular respiration and state the region of the eukaryotic cell where each stage occurs.

8.  Describe how the carbon skeleton of glucose changes as it proceeds through glycolysis.

9.  Explain why ATP is required for the preparatory steps of glycolysis.

10. Identify where substrate-level phosphorylation and the reduction of NAD+ occur in glycolysis.

11. Describe where pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl CoA, what molecules are produced, and how this process links glycolysis to the citric acid cycle.

12. List the products of the citric acid cycle. Explain why it is called a cycle.

13. Describe the point at which glucose is completely oxidized during cellular respiration.

14. Distinguish between substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation.

15. In general terms, explain how the exergonic “slide” of electrons down the electron transport chain is coupled to the endergonic production of ATP by chemiosmosis.

16. Explain where and how the respiratory electron transport chain creates a proton gradient.

17. Describe the structure and function of the four subunits of ATP synthase.

18. Summarize the net ATP yield from the oxidation of a glucose molecule by constructing an ATP ledger.

19. Explain why it is not possible to state an exact number of ATP molecules generated by the oxidation of glucose.

Related Metabolic Processes

20. State the basic function of fermentation.

21. Compare the fate of pyruvate in alcohol fermentation and in lactic acid fermentation.

22. Compare the processes of fermentation and cellular respiration.

23. Describe the evidence that suggests that glycolysis is an ancient metabolic pathway.

24. Describe how food molecules other than glucose can be oxidized to make ATP.

25. Explain how glycolysis and the citric acid cycle can contribute to anabolic pathways.

26. Explain how ATP production is controlled by the cell, and describe the role that the allosteric enzyme phosphofructokinase plays in the process.

 
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Chapter 49 AP Obj Sensory

 

 

Chapter 49     Sensory & Motor Mechanisms
Objectives
Sensing, Acting, and Brains
1. Differentiate between sensation and perception.
Introduction to Sensory Reception
2. Explain the difference between exteroreceptors and interoreceptors.
3. Describe the four general functions of receptor cells as they convert energy stimuli into changes in membrane potentials and then transmit signals to the central nervous system.
4. Distinguish between sensory transduction and receptor potential.
5. Explain the importance of sensory adaptation.
6. List the five types of sensory receptors and explain the energy transduced by each type.
Hearing and Equilibrium
7. Explain the role of mechanoreceptors in hearing and balance.
8. Describe the structure and function of invertebrate statocysts.
9. Explain how insects may detect sound.
10. Refer to a diagram of the human ear and give the function of each structure.
11. Explain how the mammalian ear functions as a hearing organ.
12. Explain how the mammalian ear functions to maintain body balance and equilibrium.
13. Describe the hearing and equilibrium systems of nonmammalian vertebrates.
Chemoreception: Taste and Smell
14. Explain how the chemoreceptors involved with taste function in insects and humans.
15. Describe what happens after an odorant binds to an odorant receptor on the plasma membrane of the olfactory cilia.
16. Explain the basis of the sensory discrimination of human smell.
Photoreceptors and Vision
17. Compare the structures of, and processing of light by, the eyecups of Planaria, the compound eye of insects, and the single-lens eyes of molluscs.
18. Refer to a diagram of the vertebrate eye to identify and give the function of each structure.
19. Describe the functions of the rod cells and cone cells of the vertebrate eye.
20. Explain and compare how the rods and cones of the retina transduce stimuli into action potentials.
21. Explain how the retina assists the cerebral cortex in the processing of visual information.
Movement and Locomotion
22. Describe three functions of a skeleton.
23. Describe how hydrostatic skeletons function and explain why they are not found in large terrestrial organisms.
24. Distinguish between an exoskeleton and an endoskeleton.
25. Explain how the structure of the arthropod exoskeleton provides both strength and flexibility.
26. Explain how a skeleton combines with an antagonistic muscle arrangement to provide a mechanism for movement.
27. Explain how body proportions and posture impact physical support on land.
28. Using a diagram, identify the components of a skeletal muscle cell.
29. Explain the sliding-filament model of muscle contraction.
30. Explain how muscle contraction is controlled.
31. Explain how the nervous system produces graded contraction of whole muscles.
32. Explain the adaptive advantages of slow and fast muscle fibers.
33. Distinguish among skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
34. List the advantages and disadvantages associated with moving through:
a. an aquatic environment
b. a terrestrial environment
c. air
35. Discuss the factors that affect the energy cost of locomotion.
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Chapter 22 AP Objectives

 

Chapter 22    Darwinian View of Life
Objectives
The Historical Context for Evolutionary Theory
1. Explain the mechanism for evolutionary change proposed by Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species.
2. Define evolution and adaptation.
3. Compare and contrast Aristotle’s scala naturae to Carolus Linnaeus’ classification scheme.
4. Describe the theories of catastrophism, gradualism, and uniformitarianism.
5. Explain the mechanism for evolutionary change proposed by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck. Explain why modern biology has rejected Lamarck’s theories.
The Darwinian Revolution
6. Describe how Darwin’s observations on the voyage of the HMS Beagle led him to formulate and support his theory of evolution.
7. Explain how the principle of gradualism and Charles Lyell’s theory of uniformitarianism influenced Darwin’s ideas about evolution.
8. Explain what Darwin meant by “descent with modification.”
9. Explain what evidence convinced Darwin that species change over time.
10. Explain how Linnaeus’ classification scheme fit Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.
11. Describe the three inferences Darwin made from his observations that led him to propose natural selection as a mechanism for evolutionary change.
12. Explain how an essay by the Rev. Thomas Malthus influenced Charles Darwin.
13. Distinguish between artificial selection and natural selection.
14. Explain why an individual organism cannot evolve.
15. Describe the experiments that supported Reznick and Endler’s hypothesis that differences in life-history traits between guppy populations are due to selective pressure based on predation.
16. Explain how the existence of homologous and vestigial structures can be explained by Darwin’s theory of natural selection.
17. Explain how evidence from biogeography supports the theory of evolution by natural selection.
18. Explain the problem with the statement that Darwinism is “just a theory.” Distinguish between the scientific and colloquial use of the word theory.

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Chapter 35 AP Objectives

 

Chapter 35     Plant Structure and Growth
Objectives
The Plant Body
1. Describe and compare the three basic organs of vascular plants. Explain how these basic organs are interdependent.
2. List the basic functions of roots. Describe and compare the structures and functions of fibrous roots, taproots, root hairs, and adventitious roots.
3. Describe the basic structure of plant stems.
4. Explain the phenomenon of apical dominance.
5. Describe the structures and functions of four types of modified shoots.
6. Describe and distinguish between the leaves of monocots and those of eudicots.
7. Describe the three tissue systems that make up plant organs.
8. Describe and distinguish between the three basic cell types of plant tissues. For each tissue, describe one characteristic structural feature and explain its functional significance.
9. Explain the functional relationship between a sieve-tube member and its companion cell.
The Process of Plant Growth and Development
10. Distinguish between determinate and indeterminate growth. Give an example of each type of growth.
11. Distinguish among annual, biennial, and perennial plants.
12. Explain this statement: “In contrast to most animals, which have a stage of embryonic growth, plants have regions of embryonic growth.”
13. Distinguish between the primary and secondary plant body.
14. Describe in detail the primary growth of the tissues of roots and shoots.
15. Describe in detail the secondary growth of the tissues of roots and shoots.
16. Name the cells that make up the tissue known as wood. Name the tissues that comprise the bark.
Mechanisms of Plant Growth and Development
17. Explain why Arabidopsis is an excellent model for the study of plant development.
18. Explain what each of these Arabidopsis mutants has taught us about plant development:
a. fass mutant
b. gnom mutant
c. KNOTTED-1 mutant
d. GLABRA-2 mutant
19. Define and distinguish between morphogenesis, differentiation, and growth.
20. Explain why (a) the plane and symmetry of cell division, (b) the orientation of cell expansion, and (c) cortical microtubules are important determinants of plant growth and development.
21. Explain how pattern formation may be determined in plants.
22. Give an example to demonstrate how a cell’s location influences its developmental fate.
23. Explain how a vegetative shoot tip changes into a floral meristem.
24. Describe how three classes of organ identity genes interact to produce the spatial pattern of floral organs in Arabidopsis.
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Chapter 23 AP Objectives

 

Chapter 23    Evolution of Populations
Objectives
Population Genetics
1. Explain the statement “It is the population, not the individual, that evolves.”
2. Explain how Mendel’s particulate hypothesis of inheritance provided much-needed support for Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.
3. Distinguish between discrete and quantitative traits. Explain how Mendel’s laws of inheritance apply to quantitative traits.
4. Explain what is meant by “the modern synthesis.”
5. Define the terms population, species, and gene pool.
6. Explain why meiosis and random fertilization alone will not alter the frequency of alleles or genotypes in a population.
7. List the five conditions that must be met for a population to remain in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
8. Write the Hardy-Weinberg equation. Use the equation to calculate allele frequencies when the frequency of homozygous recessive individuals in a population is 25%.
Mutation and Sexual Recombination
9. Explain why the majority of point mutations are harmless.
10. Explain why mutation has little quantitative effect on allele frequencies in a large population.
11. Describe the significance of transposons in the generation of genetic variability.
12. Explain how sexual recombination generates genetic variability.
Natural Selection, Genetic Drift, and Gene Flow
13. Explain the following statement: “Only natural selection leads to the adaptation of organisms to their environment.”
14. Explain the role of population size in genetic drift.
15. Distinguish between the bottleneck effect and the founder effect.
16. Describe how gene flow can act to reduce genetic differences between adjacent populations.
Genetic Variation, the Substrate for Natural Selection
17. Explain how quantitative and discrete characters contribute to variation within a population.
18. Distinguish between average heterozygosity and nucleotide variability. Explain why average heterozygosity tends to be greater than nucleotide variability.
19. Define a cline.
20. Define relative fitness.
a. Explain why relative fitness is zero for a healthy, long-lived, sterile organism.
b. Explain why relative fitness could be high for a short-lived organism.
21. Distinguish among directional, disruptive, and stabilizing selection. Give an example of each mode of selection.
22. Explain how diploidy can protect a rare recessive allele from elimination by natural selection.
23. Describe how heterozygote advantage and frequency-dependent selection promote balanced polymorphism.
24. Define neutral variations. Explain why natural selection does not act on these alleles.
25. Distinguish between intrasexual selection and intersexual selection.
26. Explain how female preferences for showy male traits may benefit the female.
27. Describe the disadvantages of sexual reproduction.
28. Explain how the genetic variation promoted by sex may be advantageous to individuals on a generational time scale.
29. List four reasons why natural selection cannot produce perfect organisms.

 
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