Category: My Classroom Material

Cell Respiration

 

Cellular Respiration
All Materials © Cmassengale

 

C6H12O6 + 6O2 —–> 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy (heat and ATP)

Energy

  • Capacity to move or change matter
  • Forms of energy are important to life include Chemical, radiant (heat & light), mechanical, and electrical
  • Energy can be transformed from one form to another
  • Chemical energy is the energy contained in the chemical bonds of molecules
  • Radiant energy travels in waves and is sometimes called electromagnetic energy. An example is visible light
  • Photosynthesis converts light energy to chemical energy
  • Energy that is stored is called potential energy

Laws of Thermodynamics

  • 1st law- Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

    Energy can be converted from one form to another. The sum of the energy before the conversion is equal to the sum of the energy after the conversion.

  • 2nd law- Some usable energy is lost during transformations.

    During changes from one form of energy to another, some usable energy is lost, usually as heat. The amount of usable energy therefore decreases.

 

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

  • Energy carrying molecule used by cells to fuel their cellular processes
  • ATP is composed of an adenine base, ribose sugar, & 3 phosphate (PO4) groups

 

 

 

  • The PO4 bonds are high-energy bonds that require energy to be made & release energy when broken

 

 

  • ATP is made & used continuously by cells
  • Every minute all of an organism’s ATP is recycled
  • Phosphorylation refers to the chemical reactions that make ATP by adding Pi to ADP ADP + Pi + energy «  ATP + H2O
  • Enzymes  (ATP synthetase& ATPase) help break & reform these high energy PO4 bonds in a process called substrate-level phosphorylation
  • When the high-energy phosphate bond is broken, it releases energy, a free phosphate group, & adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

 

 

 

Enzymes in Metabolic Pathways:

  • Biological catalysts
  • Speeds up chemical reactions
  • Lowers the amount of activation energy needed by weakening existing bonds in substrates

  • Highly specific protein molecules
  • Have an area called the active site where substrates temporarily join
  • Form an enzyme-substrate complex to stress bonds
  • Enzyme usable

enzyme substrate complex

 
Energy Carriers During Respiration:

NADH: A second energy carrying molecule in the mitochondria; produces 3 ATP

 

 

FADH2: A third energy carrying molecule in the mitochondria; produces 2 ATP

 

 

Mitochondria:

  • Has outer smooth, outer membrane & folded inner membrane
  • Folds are called cristae
  • Space inside cristae is called the matrix & contains DNA & ribosomes
  • Site of aerobic respiration
  • Krebs cycle takes place in matrix
  • Electron Transport Chain takes place in cristae 

Cellular Respiration Overview:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 —–> 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy (heat and ATP)

  • Controlled release of energy from organic molecules (most often glucose)
  • Glucose is oxidized (loses e-) & oxygen is reduced (gains e-)
  • The carbon atoms of glucose (C6H12O6) are released as CO2
  • Generates ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

 

 

  • The energy in one glucose molecule may be used to produce 36 ATP
  • Involves a series of 3 reactions — Glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle, & Electron Transport Chain

Glycolysis:

  • Occurs in the cytoplasm
  • Summary of the steps of Glycolysis:

    a. 2 ATP added to glucose (6C) to energize it.

    b. Glucose split to 2 PGAL (3C). (PGAL = phosphoglyceraldehyde)

    c. H+ and e- (e- = electron) taken from each PGAL & given to make 2 NADH.

    d. NADH is energy and e- carrier.

    e. Each PGAL rearranged into pyruvate (3C), with energy transferred to make 4 ATP (substrate phosphorylation).

    f. Although glycolysis makes 4 ATP, the net ATP production by this step is 2 ATP (because 2 ATP were used to start glycolysis). The 2 net ATP are available for cell use.

    g. If oxygen is available to the cell, the pyruvate will move into the mitochondria & aerobic respiration will begin.


     

    Net Yield from Glycolysis
    4 NADH2
    2 CO2
    4 ATP ( 2 used to start reaction)

     

h. If no oxygen is available to the cell (anaerobic), the pyruvate will be fermented by addition of 2 H from the NADH (to alcohol + CO2 in yeast or lactic acid in muscle cells). This changes NADH back to NAD+ so it is available for step c above. This keeps glycolysis going!

 

Alcoholic Fermentation

 

 

Lactic Acid Fermentation

 

Aerobic Respiration:

  • Occurs in the mitochondria
  • Includes the Krebs Cycle & the Electron Transport Chain
  • Pyruvic acid from glycolysis diffuses into matrix of mitochondria & reacts with coenzyme A to for acetyl-CoA (2-carbon compound)
  • CO2 and NADH are also produced

Kreb’s Cycle:

  • Named for biochemist Hans Krebs
  • Metabolic pathway that indirectly requires O2 
  • Kreb’s Cycle is also known as the Citric acid Cycle
  • Requires 2 cycles to metabolize glucose
  • Acetyl Co-A (2C) enters the Kreb’s Cycle & joins with Oxaloacetic Acid (4C) to make Citric Acid (6C)
  • Citric acid is oxidized releasing CO2 , free H+, & e- and forming ketoglutaric acid (5C)
  • Free e- reduce the energy carriers NAD+ to NADH2 and FAD+ to FADH2
  • Ketoglutaric acid is also oxidized releasing more CO2 , free H+, & e-
  • The cycle continues oxidizing the carbon compounds formed (succinic acid, fumaric acid, malic acid, etc.) producing more CO2, NADH2, FADH2, & ATP
  • H2O is added to supply more H+
  • CO2 is a waste product that diffuses out of cells
  • Oxaloacetic acid is regenerated to start the cycle again
  • NADH2 and FADH2 produced migrate to the Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

 

Net Yield from Kreb’s Cycle (2 turns)
6 NADH2
2 FADH2
4 CO2
2 ATP

 

Electron Transport Chain:

  • Found in the inner mitochondrial membrane or cristae
  • Contains 4 protein-based complexes that work in sequence moving H+ from the matrix across the inner membrane (proton pumps)
  • A concentration gradient of H+ between the inner & outer mitochondrial membrane occurs
  • H+ concentration gradient causes the synthesis of ATP by chemiosmosis
  • Energized e- & H+ from the 10 NADH2 and 2 FADH2 (produced during glycolysis & Krebs cycle) are transferred to O2 to produce H2O (redox reaction)

O2  +  4e-  +  4H+  2H2O

 

Energy Yield from Aerobic Respiration
Glycolysis Kreb’s Cycle Total
4 NADH2 6 NADH2 10 NADH2 x 3 = 30 ATP
0 FADH2 2 FADH2 2 FADH2 x 2 = 4 ATP
2 ATP 2 ATP                          4 ATP
38 ATP

 

  • Most cells produce 36- 38 molecules of ATP per glucose (66% efficient)
  • Actual number of ATP’s produced by aerobic respiration varies among cells

 

Chapter 13 Biotechnology PPT Questions

 

DNA Technology
ppt Questions

DNA Extraction

1. When cells are treated with certain chemicals, it causes the plasma membrane to __________ or lyse.

2. DNA can be pulled out of cells because it is ________________ and can be ______________.

3. Describe the appearance of DNA spooled from cells.

 

4. What may be used to cut DNA into smaller pieces?

5. Do all restriction enzymes cut DNA at the same place?

6. What 2 properties can be used to separate DNA fragments?

7. Why does DNA have a negative charge?

 

8. To separate DNA fragments, it is placed in a ____________ with a current of _____________ running through it.

9. This process is called ____________________.

10. What determines the direction DNA will move in a gel?

 

11. Which fragments move further and faster?

12. DNA fragments are loaded into depression on the gel called _____________.

13. The DNA gel floats in a chamber covered with a ____________ solution.

14. DNA fragments closest to the wells are ___________ in size, while the __________ DNA fragments are further from the wells.

Steps in DNA Sequencing 

15. Many copies of a ______________ of DNA are placed in a test tube and ________________ is added to begin the process.

16. What else must be added?

17. How are the different nucleotide bases marked or tagged?

 

18. Dyed and _____________ nucleotides are added, but the large __________ molecules stop the chain from growing producing DNA fragments of _______________ sizes.

19. The fragments make banding patterns on an electrophoresis gel of different _____________ that can be identified.

20. The separated fragments are then read by _____________ from the ________ of the gel to the top.

Copying DNA

21. Define PCR and tell what it stands for.

 

 

22. To make many copies of DNA, DNA polymerase is added that can work at very high _______________. 

23. DNA is _____________ to separate the two strands.

24. What is added next to the test tube of DNA and DNA polymerase?

25. What are primers?

 

26. When the tube is cooled, DNA polymerase adds new ___________ to the separated DNA strands.

27. Even though a small amount of DNA is used to start PCR, ___________ amounts of DNA can be copied.

Cloning

28. What is a clone?

 

29. Clones may be produced by _____________ reproduction.

30. What two types of cells are combined in order to clone an organism?

 

31. Once a body cell fuses to an egg cell, the cell divides like a normal _____________.

32. What was the first successfully cloned organism?

 

Human Genome Project

33.  When was the project started?

34. What is the goal of the project?

 

 

35. How many nucleotides approximately make up the human genome?  How many chromosomes?

 

36. Who is mapping the genes on the human chromosomes?

37. From working on the Human Genome project, scientists have discovered that only about ________ actually codes for proteins; these genes are called _____________.

38. What is the other 98% or non-coding genes of DNA known as?

39. How many genes have been found on DNA?  Is this more or less than the expected number?

 

40. What are SNP’s that the scientists found?

 

41. Define proteome.

 

42. Human Genome researchers discovered transposons.  What are these structures?

 

43. The Human Genome Project was produced an area of science known as bioinformatics.  how is this helpful in sequencing DNA?

 

44. Define biotechnology.

 

45. Give an example of an agricultural crop grown in this area that has been improved by genetic engineering.

46. What product was 1st made in 1982 by genetic engineering to help diabetics?

47. Explain how biotechnology has improved each of these fruits or vegetables:

a. bananas

b. rice

c. garlic

d. potatoes

 

48. Give 4 ways biotechnology has helped the environment.

 

 

Cell Respiration Study Guide B1

Chapter 7        Study Guide        Cellular Respiration

1. Most eukaryotic cells produce only about ___________  ATP Molecules per Glucose Molecule.
2. What is the process by which glucose is converted to pyruvic acid?

3. At the begining of aerobic respiration, pyruvic acid bonds to a molecule called _______________________ to form Acetyl CoA.
4. The breakdown of pyruvic acid in the presence of oxygen is called ___________________  _______________________.

5. With every completion of the Krebs Cycle, how many ATP Molecules are made?
6. What is the waste product of the Krebs Cycle?

7. The conversion of pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and ethanol is called _____________________   _______________________.

8. The release of energy from food molecules in the absence of oxygen is _______________________     _____________________________.

9. What is the byproduct of the electron transport Chain?

10. How efficient is Anaerobic Respiration? __________%  Aerobic Respiration?

11. What is the first pathway of cellular respiration called?

12.What is the location of Glycolysis?

13. What is the scientific unit of Energy?

14. What do you call cellular respiration in the presence of oxygen?

15. Yeast produces ___________________ and _________________ in the process known as _____________________  _______________________.

16. In cellular respiration, glycolysis proceeds the _________________.

17. In cellular respiration, more energy is transferred in the  ________________ than in any other step.

18. Glucose molecules are converted into ________________  ______________ molecules in the process of glycolysis.

19. What is the location of the electron transport chain in prokaryotes?

20. The processes of glycolysis and the anaerobic pathways is called _________________.

21. What is the product of acetyl CoA and oxaloacetic acid?

22. What molecule is the electron acceptor of glycolysis?

23. The breakdown of organic compounds to produce ATP is known as __________  __________.
24. Glycolysis begins with glucose and produces _____________  ______________.

25. An important molecule generated by both lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation is ____________.

26.  In the first step of aerobic respiration, pyruvic acid from glycolysis produces CO2, NADH, H+, and ____________  ______________.

27. The electron transport chain is driven by two products of the Krebs Cycle – ______________________  and  ___________________________.
28. What happens to electrons as they are transported along the electron transport chain?

29. The energy efficiency of aerobic respiration (including glycolysis) is approximately ______________  ____________________.

30. Where in the mitochondria do the reactions of the Krebs cycle occur?

31. Where in the mitochondria is the electron transport chain located?

32. In alcoholic fermentation, ethyl alcohol is produced from ____________________.

33.  _______________, and ________________ supply electrons and protons to the electron transport chain.

34. The fourth step of glycolysis yields four ATP molecules, but the net yield is only two ATP molecules.  Explain this discrepancy.

35. Under what conditions would cells in your body undergo lactic-acid fermentation?

36. Glycolysis produces only 3.5% of the energy that would be produced if an equal quantity of glucose were completely oxidized.  What has happened to the remaining energy in the glucose?

37. Explain the role of oxaloacetic acid with respect to the cyclical nature of the Krebs cycle.

38  What happens to electrons that accumulate at the end of the electron transport chain?

39. Where in the mitochondrion do protons accumulate, and what is the source of the protons?

Back

 

Chapter 1 Questions PPT

 

Introduction to Biology  

Science of Life

1. Approximately how long ago did life arise on earth?

2. Describe the first organisms.

3. Organisms change or __________ over long periods of time.

4. Today, millions of _________ of organisms exist on earth.

5. The ________ is the basis unit of life and makes up all _____________.

6. _____________ organisms are made of a single cell and are genetically ___________ to their parent cell.

7. Many-celled organisms are known are called _______________ and they may be made of ___________ types of cells.

8. What is true about the size of most cells?

9. Are cells organized?

10. Specialized structures in cells are called _____________.

11. What surrounds all cells?

12. All cells must contain a set of ______________ instructions or DNA.

13. Organisms maintain stable internal conditions called ______________.

14. Name 4 things that organisms must keep stable or balanced.

 

15. For a species to continue, some of its members must be able to _____________ and pass on their traits to their ______________.

16. What does DNA stand for?

17. DNA’s instructions are called __________ and code for the complex ____________ necessary for life.

18. ___________ cells or body cells each have a full set of _________ or hereditary material.

19. ____________ reproductions combines hereditary information from _____ parents.

20. When an sperm and egg join, a fertilized egg or __________ forms and contains DNA from ________ parents.

21. In ___________ reproduction, only a single parent cell reproduces and the new cells are genetically _____________ to each other and the original cell.

22. _____________, not individual organisms, change or evolve over many generations.

23. ____________ ___________ is the driving force for evolution.

24. According to natural selection, which individuals in a population are more likely to survive and be able to reproduce?

 

25. A change in population due to the survival & reproduction of organisms with favorable traits is known as what?

26. Define ecology.

 

27. Name 3 things that organisms need from their environment.

Matter, Energy, & Organization

28. Organisms require a constant supply of ____________.

29. The _________ directly or indirectly supplies the energy for living things.

30. ______________ is the process of capturing sunlight and changing it into stored ____________ energy for organisms.

31. __________ are organisms that can make their own food.

32. _____________ use _________ for photosynthesis converting _________ and _______ into sugar and __________.

33. ______________ use chemicals to get energy.

34. Organisms that can’t make their own food are known as _____________ and may be __________ eating autotrophs, ______________ eating other heterotrophs, or ______________eating both autotrophs and heterotrophs to get energy.

World of Biology

35. the size of an organisms depends on the ___________ of cells that make it up and not the _______ of the cells.

36. Organelles are cell structures that carry out different ___________ for the cell.

37. The sum of all the chemical processes in an organisms is called _____________.

38. _________ is needed for all metabolic processes including growth and reproduction.

39. Homeostasis is when a n organism maintains  ____________ internal conditions such as body temperature.

40. Name 2 processes that result in the growth of an organism.

41. All new cells develop from ______________ cells.

42. new cells ___________ as they mature.

43. The process of an organism become an adult is called ______________ and involves numerous cell ____________ and cell _______________.

44. Do all members of a species have to be able to reproduce for the species to continue?

45. Organisms respond to ____________ from their environment such as light, __________, heat, and touch.

Scientific Method

46. The scientific method begins with _____________ that involves using your senses to perceive objects or events in the natural world.

47. Based on their observations and questioning, scientists make a ________________ that can tested through experimentation.

48. Hypothesis may have to be ___________ after an experiment is done if it is NOT supported by the data.

49. Testing a hypothesis must be done in a ______________ experiment that includes a control group that can be compared to an ______________ group.

50. How many factors may be different between the control group & experimental group?

51. What is this one factor called?

52. The ___________ variable is measured in both groups.

53. Information collected in an experiment is called ___________.

54. When numerical data is collected, it is called _____________ data.

55. _____________ may be used when the population size is too large for the experiment.

56. Collected data must be organized into ___________, ____________, or graphs.

57. A ___________ may be formed from many related hypotheses that have been tested & support the evidence.

58. When scientists complete their experiments they must _________ their work with other scientists.

59. Scientific work may be printed in scientific ____________ or presented as papers as scientific ______________.

Microscopes

60. Microscopes produce an enlarged ____________ of an object due to ____________ of the microscope lenses.

61. The clearness of a microscope image is known as ____________.

62. Arrange these things in order from smallest to largest – fly, animal cell, atom, virus, organelle, bacterial cell.

 

63. Label the parts of this microscope.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

64. Where is the specimen placed in order to view it through a microscope?

65. What lens do you look through at the top of a microscope and what is its magnification?

66. What are the lenses called on the revolving nosepiece?

67. How do you determine the total magnification for a microscope?

68. Which knob should be turned to focus on low power?

69. Which knob should be turned to focus on high power?

70. How should a microscope be carried?

 

71. What should be done when you are finished using a microscope?

 

72. The best light microscopes can magnify images up to how many times?

73. What type of microscope can used to view inside of cells that have been thinly sliced?

74. What is total magnification for the TEM?

75. What type of microscope produces a 3-D image of the surface of an object?

76. Can electron microscopes be used to view living specimens?

Measurements

77. Scientists use the _____________ system or _______.

78. The SI system is based on units of _______.

79.The basic metric unit of measure is __________ for mass, _________ for volume, __________ for temperature,  _____________ for length, and __________ for time.

80. What are the most common prefixes used for biology and what do they stand for?

 

 

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Cell Respiration Worksheet Ch 7 BI

 

Cellular Respiration

 

Section 7-1 Glycolysis & Fermentation

1. What organisms trap sunlight & store it in carbohydrates?

2. What 2 organisms break down carbohydrates to release energy from cells?

3. What is the main energy currency of a cell?

4. Define cellular respiration.

5. What process begins cellular respiration & does it produce much ATP?

6. If there is no oxygen in cells, the products of glycolysis enter ________________________
pathways that yield no additional ______________________.

7. Fermentation is __________________________ because no oxygen is used.

8. If oxygen is present in cells, the glycolysis products enter the ______________________
respiration pathway.

9. Does aerobic respiration produce much ATP?

10. What simple sugar starts glycolysis?

11. In glycolysis, glucose is broken into 2 molecules of _______________________ acid
in the ______________________ of the cell.

12. In which part of the cell does fermentation occur? Is oxygen involved?

13. Name the 2 types of fermentation.

14. __________________________ acid fermentation helps make cheese & yogurt and also
occurs in _______________________ cells during heavy exercise.

15. What effect does lactic acid have on muscle cells?

16. Yeasts carry on what type of fermentation?

17. What alcohol is made in alcoholic fermentation?

18. Table _____________________________ and ____________________ are made by yeasts
during alcoholic fermentation.

19. One molecule of sugar produces _________________ kilocalories of energy.

20. _______________________________ respiration, like glycolysis, produces less energy than
____________________________ respiration of pyruvic acid.

Section 7-2 Aerobic Respiration

21. Aerobic respiration requires what gas?

22. How much more ATP does aerobic respiration produce than glycolysis alone?

23. Name the 2 major stages of aerobic respiration.

24. What is completed in the Krebs cycle?

25. The energy carrier NAD+ is reduced to what substance?

26. Which part of aerobic respiration makes most of the ATP (cell’s energy)?

27. Where does aerobic respiration take place in prokaryotes?

28. Where do these reactions take place in eukaryotes?

29. What is the mitochondrial matrix & what product of glycolysis diffuses into this matrix?

30. What is found inside the mitochondrial matrix to help catalyze the reactions of the Krebs cycle?

31. What is acetyl CoA & to what does it combine?

32. Define Krebs cycle.

33. The first acid produced in the Krebs cycle is _________________ acid. (Diagram p. 135)

34. Two energy carriers are reduced in the Krebs cycle; ________________becomes NADH
and _________________ becomes FADH.

35. Is any ATP made in the Krebs cycle?

36. What gas is a waste product produced in the Krebs cycle?

37. The _________________________________ is the second part of aerobic respiration.

38. Where does the ETS take place in eukaryotic cells?

39. _________________________ is made in the ETS when NADH and FADH2 release
______________________ ions.

40. What gas serves as the final acceptor of electrons in the ETS (electron transport system)?

41. Write the equation for this gas accepting electrons at the end of the ETS (see page 137).

42. What is the final product of the ETS?

43. How many ATP’s of energy are made during glycolysis?

44. How many ATP’s of energy are made during the Krebs cycle?

45. Each FADH can generate how many ATP’s of energy?

46. Each NADH can generate how many ATP’s of energy?

47. _______________________ NADH molecules & ______________________ FADH
molecules are made by aerobic respiration.

48. How many ATP molecules are made by the electron transport system?

49. What is the maximum number of ATP molecules that can be produced from each glucose molecule?

50. Write the summary equation for cellular respiration.