Category: My Classroom Material

Cell Reproduction Lecture Notes B1

Cell Reproduction Lecture Guide

SECTION 8-1    CHROMOSOMES

DNA stores?                        Estimated length?

Coiled DNA in eukaryote nucleus called?

Chromosome shape?                              Made of?

Can be seen inside nucleus by?

Histones?

Function of histones?

Function of nonhistone proteins?

Sister chromatids?

When form?

Centromere?

Function of centromere?

Sketch sister chromatids & label centromere.

Prokaryotic chromosomes?

Shape?                         Number?                     Location & attachment?

Number of chromosomes in human body cells?               Called what?

How abbreviated?

Are all diploid numbers in organisms the same?   Explain and give examples.

Human body cells called what?               Examples?

Reproductive cells are called?                        Name them.

Chromosome number of gametes?                              Abbreviation?

Haploid number also called?                                      Haploid number for humans?

Fertilization?

Chromosome number that fertilization restores?

Fertilized egg called?                          Sets of chromosomes in zygote?

Chromosomes in egg and sperm called?             Name them.

Sex chromosomes of female?                                 Male?

Other 22 pairs or 44  chromosomes called?

Karyotype?

Homologous pairs of chromosomes?

Example of information contained in homologs.

SECTION 8-2    CELL DIVISION

All cells come from?                          Process called?                     

Same in prokaryotes & eukaryotes?

Binary fission?

Used by?                               Number of steps or stages.

Stage 1 of binary fission?

Stage 2 of binary fisssion?

Stage 3 of binary fission?

Is binary fission sexual or asexual reproduction?

Original cell that forms eukaryotes is called?

How new cells compare to each other & the original cell after cell division? Why?

Phases cell goes through in its life cycle called?

Number of phases?                  Name them.

Two parts of cell division?

Mitosis?

Interphase?

Also called?                          Length in cell cycle?

What’s occurring to cells in interphase?

Number of phases in interphase?                   Name them.

G1 phase?

S phase?

G2 phase?

Replication?

Results in forming?                                            Occurs when?

Why all new cells must have exact copy of DNA?

Daughter cells?

How form?                                       Compare to each other?

Two steps of cell division called?

Another name for mitosis?                                    What’s dividing?

Division of the cytoplasm called?                          When occurs?

Parent cell?

How multicellular organisms grow?

Number of steps or phases in mitosis?            Name them in order.

What’s made during mitosis?

When did the chromosomes replicate (make copies of the DNA)?

Prophase?

Chromatin condenses into what?                                 Held together by?

Two structures that disappear in prophase?

Centrosomes located near?                                        Number of centrosomes?

Contain what cylindrical bodies?                                 Found in plant &/or animal cells?
Made of bundles of?                                                   Where centrosomes move?

Help form?

Function of mitotic spindle?

Two types of spindle fibers?

Attach to centromere of sister chromatids?                                          Function?

Metaphase?

             Where are chromosomes moved?

What moves the chromosomes?

Center of cell called?                                        Ends of cell called?

Anaphase?

What happens to sister chromatids?

Once chromatids separate, they’re now individual what?

Telophase?

What happens to spindle fibers?

Chromosomes again tightly coil becoming what?

What two structures reform?

Cytokinesis?

How occurs in animal cells?

How occurs in plant cells?

How many new cells formed?                                    Cells called?

Size of new cells to each other?                   Size of new cells & parent cell?

Daughter cells & parent cell genetically identical or different?

Is mitosis sexual or asexual reproduction?

SECTION 8-3    MEIOSIS

Meiosis?

What happens to chromosome number?

Cells produced by meiosis are called?              Their chromosome number?

Fusion of gametes?                                                      Effect on chromosome number?

Number of chromosomes in human egg?               Sperm?            Zygote?

Sexual reproduction?

Combines what 2 cells?                                                Forms what cell?

Eggs?

Sperm?

How sperm reaches nonmotile egg?

Gametes produced by what process?

Where occurs in females?                                            In males?

What called in females?                                               In males?

Diploid egg or sperm after meiosis have what chromosome number?

How do daughter cells made in meiosis compare to the original cell?

How many divisions do cells undergo during meiosis?

How many new cells are produced?

How many main stages are there in meiosis?                                   Name them.

What occurs in Meiosis I?

What occurs in Meiosis II?

Chromosome number at the beginning of Meiosis I?

Homolog?

Synapsis?

Pair of homologs after synapsis called?                                    Sketch a tetrad.

First step in Meiosis I called?

            Are chromosomes visible?

Chromosome number in meiosis I?

Genes?

Crossing over?

Genetic recombination?

What 2 structures disappear?

What structure appears & attaches to homologs?

Where are tetrads moved during Metaphase I?

What happens to homologs in Anaphase I?

            What separates the homologs?

Random separation of homologous chromosomes called?

What happens to cytoplasm during Telophase I?

Chromosome number of new cells?                             How many new cells formed?

Do chromosomes replicate before Meiosis II?

            Name the 4 steps in Meiosis II.

How many new cells form in males?                          In females?

Polar bodies?

What usually happens to polar bodies? Why?

New cells in females called?                                      Cells after maturing called?

New cells in males called?                                         Cells after maturing called?

Chromosome number of new cells?

Evolution?

Which type of reproduction causes change in organisms?

Reproduction involving one parent?                                               Give 3 examples.

Chromosome number of parent & new cells?

Reproduction involving two parents?

Chromosome number of parent cell?                           Chromosome number of new cells?

Are organisms in a sexually reproducing population genetically identical?

Variations?

“Survival of the fittest”?

How environmental changes affect asexually reproducing organisms?        Sexually reproducing organisms?

BACK

Chapter 10 Questions PPT

DNA & Replication
ppt Questions

History of DNA

1. Early scientists believed that _________ was the genetic material of the cell. Explain why.

 

2. Proteins are made of 20 different ________________.

3. Long chains of amino acids make up _________________.

4. Fred Griffith worked with what type of bacteria?

5. What did he find to be true after his experiments with the S and R strains of bacteria?

 

6. This process of picking up DNA from the environment is called ____________________.

7. Did Griffith’s experiment prove DNA was the genetic material?

8. What 2 main things make up chromosomes?

9. What did Hershey and Chase use in their experiments to prove DNA was the cell’s genetic material?

10. Hershey and Chase radioactively tagged the viral DNA with _______________ and the protein capsid with ______________.

11. Which radioactive substance was injected into and took over the host cell’s DNA?

12. What scientists showed the amount of the 4 nitrogen bases present in DNA?

13. Name the bases and their amounts found in somatic or body cells of humans.

 

14. What bases are complementary (pair with each other) on DNA?

15. What type of bonds join base pairs on DNA?

16. Are these strong or weak bonds?

17. What was Rosalind Franklin’s contribution to finding DNA’s structure?

 

18. Who built the first model of DNA and what did they use to help get the correct measurements for the molecule?

DNA Structure 

19. DNA is two coiled strands known as a ___________________.

20. What makes up the sides of a DNA molecule?

21. What bonds the deoxyribose sugars to the phosphate groups?

22. Where are the nitrogen bases found on DNA & how are they bonded?

23. Most DNA has a ______________ twist with ________ base pairs in a complete turn.

24. DNA stands for ___________________________.

25. ______________ are the subunits making up DNA.

26. Name the 3 parts of a nucleotide.

 

27. Why is deoxyribose called a pentose sugar?

28. Sketch a pentose sugar and include the carbons correctly numbered.

 

 

29. The sugars on one DNA strand of DNA are from 5′ to _________, while the sugars on the other strand are antiparallel running from _________ to ___________.

30. Double ring nitrogen bases are called ____________, while single ring nitrogen bases are called ________________.

31. Name the purines.

32. Name the pyrimidines.

33. Purines will only pair with ________________.

34. __________ hydrogen bonds are required to join guanine to cytosine, while only ________ bonds join adenine to thymine.

35. If there is 30% adenine, how much cytosine is present?

DNA Replication 

36. Cells must copy their DNA before they do what? Explain why.

 

37. During what part of the cell cycle is DNA copied?

38. In eukaryotes, where are the copies of DNA made?

39. The process of copying DNA is known as DNA ________________.

40. Replication of DNA begins at points called __________________________.

41. The two DNA strands ______________ at origins of replication forming Y-shaped areas called _______________________.

42. New DNA strands grow at the _____________.

43. As the two strands open at the origins of replication, replication _____________ form.

44. Prokaryotic chromosomes have a ___________ replication bubble, while eukaryotic cells have ___________ bubbles.

45. What enzyme uncoils DNA so it can be replicated or copied?

46. What other job does this enzyme perform?

47. What is the job of single-strand binding proteins?

 

48. What enzyme relieves stress on the DNA strands at the replication forks?

49. An RNA __________ must be present to start the addition of new nucleotides.

50. What enzyme makes the RNA primer?

51. DNA ______________ is the enzyme that adds new complementary base pairs.

52. DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to what end of the DNA molecule?

53. Which DNA strand is synthesized continuously as a single strand?

54. The leading strand is made from the ______________ toward the _________________ as it opens.

55. The ____________ strand is synthesized ____________ the overall direction of replication.

56. The lagging strand is made in __________ short segments from the _____________ fork toward the _____________ of replication.

57. The short segments of the lagging strand are called ______________ fragments.

58. What enzyme joins Okazaki fragments together into one strand?

59. Sketch half of a replication bubble. Label the point of origin and the replication fork. Draw two arrows showing the leading strand and the lagging strand.

 

 

 

60. DNA polymerase initially makes how many errors?

61. Proofreading enzymes correct mistakes in DNA to a one in ______________ base pairing errors?

62. Explain the semiconservative model for DNA replication.

 

 

63. Who developed this idea about replication?

64. Chemicals and _____________ radiation can damage DNA in our body cells so it must be ________________ repaired.

65. What is excision repair?

 

66. What 2 enzymes replace damaged sections of DNA and rebind the molecule?

67. What is the complementary DNA strand for: 5′ -CGTATG -3′ ?

 

 

Cell Respiration

 

Cellular Respiration
All Materials © Cmassengale

 

C6H12O6 + 6O2 —–> 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy (heat and ATP)

Energy

  • Capacity to move or change matter
  • Forms of energy are important to life include Chemical, radiant (heat & light), mechanical, and electrical
  • Energy can be transformed from one form to another
  • Chemical energy is the energy contained in the chemical bonds of molecules
  • Radiant energy travels in waves and is sometimes called electromagnetic energy. An example is visible light
  • Photosynthesis converts light energy to chemical energy
  • Energy that is stored is called potential energy

Laws of Thermodynamics

  • 1st law- Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

    Energy can be converted from one form to another. The sum of the energy before the conversion is equal to the sum of the energy after the conversion.

  • 2nd law- Some usable energy is lost during transformations.

    During changes from one form of energy to another, some usable energy is lost, usually as heat. The amount of usable energy therefore decreases.

 

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

  • Energy carrying molecule used by cells to fuel their cellular processes
  • ATP is composed of an adenine base, ribose sugar, & 3 phosphate (PO4) groups

 

 

 

  • The PO4 bonds are high-energy bonds that require energy to be made & release energy when broken

 

 

  • ATP is made & used continuously by cells
  • Every minute all of an organism’s ATP is recycled
  • Phosphorylation refers to the chemical reactions that make ATP by adding Pi to ADP ADP + Pi + energy «  ATP + H2O
  • Enzymes  (ATP synthetase& ATPase) help break & reform these high energy PO4 bonds in a process called substrate-level phosphorylation
  • When the high-energy phosphate bond is broken, it releases energy, a free phosphate group, & adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

 

 

 

Enzymes in Metabolic Pathways:

  • Biological catalysts
  • Speeds up chemical reactions
  • Lowers the amount of activation energy needed by weakening existing bonds in substrates

  • Highly specific protein molecules
  • Have an area called the active site where substrates temporarily join
  • Form an enzyme-substrate complex to stress bonds
  • Enzyme usable

enzyme substrate complex

 
Energy Carriers During Respiration:

NADH: A second energy carrying molecule in the mitochondria; produces 3 ATP

 

 

FADH2: A third energy carrying molecule in the mitochondria; produces 2 ATP

 

 

Mitochondria:

  • Has outer smooth, outer membrane & folded inner membrane
  • Folds are called cristae
  • Space inside cristae is called the matrix & contains DNA & ribosomes
  • Site of aerobic respiration
  • Krebs cycle takes place in matrix
  • Electron Transport Chain takes place in cristae 

Cellular Respiration Overview:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 —–> 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy (heat and ATP)

  • Controlled release of energy from organic molecules (most often glucose)
  • Glucose is oxidized (loses e-) & oxygen is reduced (gains e-)
  • The carbon atoms of glucose (C6H12O6) are released as CO2
  • Generates ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

 

 

  • The energy in one glucose molecule may be used to produce 36 ATP
  • Involves a series of 3 reactions — Glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle, & Electron Transport Chain

Glycolysis:

  • Occurs in the cytoplasm
  • Summary of the steps of Glycolysis:

    a. 2 ATP added to glucose (6C) to energize it.

    b. Glucose split to 2 PGAL (3C). (PGAL = phosphoglyceraldehyde)

    c. H+ and e- (e- = electron) taken from each PGAL & given to make 2 NADH.

    d. NADH is energy and e- carrier.

    e. Each PGAL rearranged into pyruvate (3C), with energy transferred to make 4 ATP (substrate phosphorylation).

    f. Although glycolysis makes 4 ATP, the net ATP production by this step is 2 ATP (because 2 ATP were used to start glycolysis). The 2 net ATP are available for cell use.

    g. If oxygen is available to the cell, the pyruvate will move into the mitochondria & aerobic respiration will begin.


     

    Net Yield from Glycolysis
    4 NADH2
    2 CO2
    4 ATP ( 2 used to start reaction)

     

h. If no oxygen is available to the cell (anaerobic), the pyruvate will be fermented by addition of 2 H from the NADH (to alcohol + CO2 in yeast or lactic acid in muscle cells). This changes NADH back to NAD+ so it is available for step c above. This keeps glycolysis going!

 

Alcoholic Fermentation

 

 

Lactic Acid Fermentation

 

Aerobic Respiration:

  • Occurs in the mitochondria
  • Includes the Krebs Cycle & the Electron Transport Chain
  • Pyruvic acid from glycolysis diffuses into matrix of mitochondria & reacts with coenzyme A to for acetyl-CoA (2-carbon compound)
  • CO2 and NADH are also produced

Kreb’s Cycle:

  • Named for biochemist Hans Krebs
  • Metabolic pathway that indirectly requires O2 
  • Kreb’s Cycle is also known as the Citric acid Cycle
  • Requires 2 cycles to metabolize glucose
  • Acetyl Co-A (2C) enters the Kreb’s Cycle & joins with Oxaloacetic Acid (4C) to make Citric Acid (6C)
  • Citric acid is oxidized releasing CO2 , free H+, & e- and forming ketoglutaric acid (5C)
  • Free e- reduce the energy carriers NAD+ to NADH2 and FAD+ to FADH2
  • Ketoglutaric acid is also oxidized releasing more CO2 , free H+, & e-
  • The cycle continues oxidizing the carbon compounds formed (succinic acid, fumaric acid, malic acid, etc.) producing more CO2, NADH2, FADH2, & ATP
  • H2O is added to supply more H+
  • CO2 is a waste product that diffuses out of cells
  • Oxaloacetic acid is regenerated to start the cycle again
  • NADH2 and FADH2 produced migrate to the Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

 

Net Yield from Kreb’s Cycle (2 turns)
6 NADH2
2 FADH2
4 CO2
2 ATP

 

Electron Transport Chain:

  • Found in the inner mitochondrial membrane or cristae
  • Contains 4 protein-based complexes that work in sequence moving H+ from the matrix across the inner membrane (proton pumps)
  • A concentration gradient of H+ between the inner & outer mitochondrial membrane occurs
  • H+ concentration gradient causes the synthesis of ATP by chemiosmosis
  • Energized e- & H+ from the 10 NADH2 and 2 FADH2 (produced during glycolysis & Krebs cycle) are transferred to O2 to produce H2O (redox reaction)

O2  +  4e-  +  4H+  2H2O

 

Energy Yield from Aerobic Respiration
Glycolysis Kreb’s Cycle Total
4 NADH2 6 NADH2 10 NADH2 x 3 = 30 ATP
0 FADH2 2 FADH2 2 FADH2 x 2 = 4 ATP
2 ATP 2 ATP                          4 ATP
38 ATP

 

  • Most cells produce 36- 38 molecules of ATP per glucose (66% efficient)
  • Actual number of ATP’s produced by aerobic respiration varies among cells

 

Chapter 13 Biotechnology PPT Questions

 

DNA Technology
ppt Questions

DNA Extraction

1. When cells are treated with certain chemicals, it causes the plasma membrane to __________ or lyse.

2. DNA can be pulled out of cells because it is ________________ and can be ______________.

3. Describe the appearance of DNA spooled from cells.

 

4. What may be used to cut DNA into smaller pieces?

5. Do all restriction enzymes cut DNA at the same place?

6. What 2 properties can be used to separate DNA fragments?

7. Why does DNA have a negative charge?

 

8. To separate DNA fragments, it is placed in a ____________ with a current of _____________ running through it.

9. This process is called ____________________.

10. What determines the direction DNA will move in a gel?

 

11. Which fragments move further and faster?

12. DNA fragments are loaded into depression on the gel called _____________.

13. The DNA gel floats in a chamber covered with a ____________ solution.

14. DNA fragments closest to the wells are ___________ in size, while the __________ DNA fragments are further from the wells.

Steps in DNA Sequencing 

15. Many copies of a ______________ of DNA are placed in a test tube and ________________ is added to begin the process.

16. What else must be added?

17. How are the different nucleotide bases marked or tagged?

 

18. Dyed and _____________ nucleotides are added, but the large __________ molecules stop the chain from growing producing DNA fragments of _______________ sizes.

19. The fragments make banding patterns on an electrophoresis gel of different _____________ that can be identified.

20. The separated fragments are then read by _____________ from the ________ of the gel to the top.

Copying DNA

21. Define PCR and tell what it stands for.

 

 

22. To make many copies of DNA, DNA polymerase is added that can work at very high _______________. 

23. DNA is _____________ to separate the two strands.

24. What is added next to the test tube of DNA and DNA polymerase?

25. What are primers?

 

26. When the tube is cooled, DNA polymerase adds new ___________ to the separated DNA strands.

27. Even though a small amount of DNA is used to start PCR, ___________ amounts of DNA can be copied.

Cloning

28. What is a clone?

 

29. Clones may be produced by _____________ reproduction.

30. What two types of cells are combined in order to clone an organism?

 

31. Once a body cell fuses to an egg cell, the cell divides like a normal _____________.

32. What was the first successfully cloned organism?

 

Human Genome Project

33.  When was the project started?

34. What is the goal of the project?

 

 

35. How many nucleotides approximately make up the human genome?  How many chromosomes?

 

36. Who is mapping the genes on the human chromosomes?

37. From working on the Human Genome project, scientists have discovered that only about ________ actually codes for proteins; these genes are called _____________.

38. What is the other 98% or non-coding genes of DNA known as?

39. How many genes have been found on DNA?  Is this more or less than the expected number?

 

40. What are SNP’s that the scientists found?

 

41. Define proteome.

 

42. Human Genome researchers discovered transposons.  What are these structures?

 

43. The Human Genome Project was produced an area of science known as bioinformatics.  how is this helpful in sequencing DNA?

 

44. Define biotechnology.

 

45. Give an example of an agricultural crop grown in this area that has been improved by genetic engineering.

46. What product was 1st made in 1982 by genetic engineering to help diabetics?

47. Explain how biotechnology has improved each of these fruits or vegetables:

a. bananas

b. rice

c. garlic

d. potatoes

 

48. Give 4 ways biotechnology has helped the environment.

 

 

Cell Respiration Study Guide B1

Chapter 7        Study Guide        Cellular Respiration

1. Most eukaryotic cells produce only about ___________  ATP Molecules per Glucose Molecule.
2. What is the process by which glucose is converted to pyruvic acid?

3. At the begining of aerobic respiration, pyruvic acid bonds to a molecule called _______________________ to form Acetyl CoA.
4. The breakdown of pyruvic acid in the presence of oxygen is called ___________________  _______________________.

5. With every completion of the Krebs Cycle, how many ATP Molecules are made?
6. What is the waste product of the Krebs Cycle?

7. The conversion of pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and ethanol is called _____________________   _______________________.

8. The release of energy from food molecules in the absence of oxygen is _______________________     _____________________________.

9. What is the byproduct of the electron transport Chain?

10. How efficient is Anaerobic Respiration? __________%  Aerobic Respiration?

11. What is the first pathway of cellular respiration called?

12.What is the location of Glycolysis?

13. What is the scientific unit of Energy?

14. What do you call cellular respiration in the presence of oxygen?

15. Yeast produces ___________________ and _________________ in the process known as _____________________  _______________________.

16. In cellular respiration, glycolysis proceeds the _________________.

17. In cellular respiration, more energy is transferred in the  ________________ than in any other step.

18. Glucose molecules are converted into ________________  ______________ molecules in the process of glycolysis.

19. What is the location of the electron transport chain in prokaryotes?

20. The processes of glycolysis and the anaerobic pathways is called _________________.

21. What is the product of acetyl CoA and oxaloacetic acid?

22. What molecule is the electron acceptor of glycolysis?

23. The breakdown of organic compounds to produce ATP is known as __________  __________.
24. Glycolysis begins with glucose and produces _____________  ______________.

25. An important molecule generated by both lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation is ____________.

26.  In the first step of aerobic respiration, pyruvic acid from glycolysis produces CO2, NADH, H+, and ____________  ______________.

27. The electron transport chain is driven by two products of the Krebs Cycle – ______________________  and  ___________________________.
28. What happens to electrons as they are transported along the electron transport chain?

29. The energy efficiency of aerobic respiration (including glycolysis) is approximately ______________  ____________________.

30. Where in the mitochondria do the reactions of the Krebs cycle occur?

31. Where in the mitochondria is the electron transport chain located?

32. In alcoholic fermentation, ethyl alcohol is produced from ____________________.

33.  _______________, and ________________ supply electrons and protons to the electron transport chain.

34. The fourth step of glycolysis yields four ATP molecules, but the net yield is only two ATP molecules.  Explain this discrepancy.

35. Under what conditions would cells in your body undergo lactic-acid fermentation?

36. Glycolysis produces only 3.5% of the energy that would be produced if an equal quantity of glucose were completely oxidized.  What has happened to the remaining energy in the glucose?

37. Explain the role of oxaloacetic acid with respect to the cyclical nature of the Krebs cycle.

38  What happens to electrons that accumulate at the end of the electron transport chain?

39. Where in the mitochondrion do protons accumulate, and what is the source of the protons?

Back