Curriculum Map 116 - BIOLOGY JUNCTION

Chapter 14 – Mendel Objectives

Chapter 14 Mendel & the Gene Idea

Objectives

Gregor Mendel’s Discoveries
1.	Explain how Mendel’s particulate mechanism differed from the blending theory of inheritance.
2.	Define the following terms: true-breeding, hybridization, monohybrid cross, P generation, F1 generation, and F2 generation.
3.	List and explain the four components of Mendel’s hypothesis that led him to deduce the law of segregation.
4.	Use a Punnett square to predict the results of a monohybrid cross, stating the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation.
5.	Distinguish between the following pairs of terms: dominant and recessive; heterozygous and homozygous; genotype and phenotype.
6.	Explain how a testcross can be used to determine if an individual with the dominant phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous.
7.	Use a Punnett square to predict the results of a dihybrid cross and state the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation.
8.	State Mendel’s law of independent assortment and describe how this law can be explained by the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis.
9.	Use the rule of multiplication to calculate the probability that a particular F2 individual will be homozygous recessive or dominant.
10.	Given a Mendelian cross, use the rule of addition to calculate the probability that a particular F2 individual will be heterozygous.
11.	Use the laws of probability to predict, from a trihybrid cross between two individuals that are heterozygous for all three traits, what expected proportion of the offspring would be: a. homozygous dominant for the three traits b. heterozygous for all three traits c. homozygous recessive for two specific traits and heterozygous for the third
12.	Explain why it is important that Mendel used large sample sizes in his studies.

	Extending Mendelian Genetics
13.	Give an example of incomplete dominance and explain why it does not support the blending theory of inheritance.
14.	Explain how phenotypic expression of the heterozygote differs with complete dominance, incomplete dominance, and codominance.
15.	Explain why Tay-Sachs disease is considered recessive at the organismal level but codominant at the molecular level.
16.	Explain why genetic dominance does not mean that a dominant allele subdues a recessive allele. Illustrate your explanation with the use of round versus wrinkled pea seed shape.
17.	Explain why dominant alleles are not necessarily more common in a population. Illustrate your explanation with an example.
18.	Describe the inheritance of the ABO blood system and explain why the IA and IB alleles are said to be codominant.
19.	Define and give examples of pleiotropy and epistasis.
20.	Describe a simple model for polygenic inheritance and explain why most polygenic characters are described in quantitative terms.
21.	Describe how environmental conditions can influence the phenotypic expression of a character. Explain what is meant by “a norm of reaction.”
22.	Distinguish between the specific and broad interpretations of the terms phenotype and genotype.

	Mendelian Inheritance in Humans
23.	Explain why studies of human inheritance are not as easily conducted as Mendel’s work with his peas.
24.	Given a simple family pedigree, deduce the genotypes for some of the family members.
25.	Explain how a lethal recessive allele can be maintained in a population.
26.	Describe the inheritance and expression of cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease, and sickle-cell disease.
27.	Explain why lethal dominant genes are much rarer than lethal recessive genes.
28.	Give an example of a late-acting lethal dominant gene in humans and explain how it can escape elimination by natural selection.
29.	Define and give examples of multifactorial disorders in humans.
30.	Explain how carrier recognition, fetal testing, and newborn screening can be used in genetic screening and counseling.

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Chapter 15 – Chromosomal Basis of Heredity Objectives

Chapter 15 Chromosomal Basis of Heredity
Objectives
Relating Mendelian Inheritance to the Behavior of Chromosomes 1. Explain how the observations of cytologists and geneticists provided the basis for the chromosome theory of inheritance. 2. Explain why Drosophila melanogaster is a good experimental organism for genetic studies. 3. Explain why linked genes do not assort independently. 4. Distinguish between parental and recombinant phenotypes. 5. Explain how crossing over can unlink genes. 6. Explain how Sturtevant created linkage maps. 7. Define a map unit. 8. Explain why Mendel did not find linkage between seed color and flower color, despite the fact that these genes are on the same chromosome. 9. Explain how genetic maps are constructed for genes located far apart on a chromosome. 10. Explain the effect of multiple crossovers between loci. 11. Explain what additional information cytogenetic maps provide. Sex Chromosomes 12. Describe how sex is genetically determined in humans and explain the significance of the SRY gene. 13. Distinguish between linked genes and sex-linked genes. 14. Explain why sex-linked diseases are more common in human males. 15. Describe the inheritance patterns and symptoms of color blindness, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and hemophilia. 16. Describe the process of X inactivation in female mammals. Explain how this phenomenon produces the tortoiseshell coloration in cats. Errors and Exceptions in Chromosomal Inheritance 17. Explain how nondisjunction can lead to aneuploidy. 18. Define trisomy, triploidy, and polyploidy. Explain how these major chromosomal changes occur and describe possible consequences. 19. Distinguish among deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. 20. Describe the type of chromosomal alterations responsible for the following human disorders: Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, extra Y, triple-X syndrome, Turner syndrome, cri du chat syndrome, and chronic myelogenous leukemia. 21. Define genomic imprinting. Describe the evidence that suggests that the Igf2 gene is maternally imprinted. 22. Explain why extranuclear genes are not inherited in a Mendelian fashion.
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Chapter 16 – Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Chapter 16 Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Objectives

DNA as the Genetic Material
1.	Explain why researchers originally thought protein was the genetic material.
2.	Summarize the experiments performed by the following scientists that provided evidence that DNA is the genetic material: a. Frederick Griffith b. Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty, and Colin MacLeod c. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase d. Erwin Chargaff
3.	Explain how Watson and Crick deduced the structure of DNA and describe the evidence they used. Explain the significance of the research of Rosalind Franklin.
4.	Describe the structure of DNA. Explain the base-pairing rule and describe its significance.

	DNA Replication and Repair
5.	Describe the semiconservative model of replication and the significance of the experiments of Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl.
6.	Describe the process of DNA replication, including the role of the origins of replication and replication forks.
7.	Explain the role of DNA polymerases in replication.
8.	Explain what energy source drives the polymerization of DNA.
9.	Define antiparallel and explain why continuous synthesis of both DNA strands is not possible.
10.	Distinguish between the leading strand and the lagging strand.
11.	Explain how the lagging strand is synthesized even though DNA polymerase can add nucleotides only to the 39 end. Describe the significance of Okazaki fragments.
12.	Explain the roles of DNA ligase, primer, primase, helicase, topoisomerase, and single-strand binding proteins.
13.	Explain why an analogy can be made comparing DNA replication to a locomotive made of DNA polymerase moving along a railroad track of DNA.
14.	Explain the roles of DNA polymerase, mismatch repair enzymes, and nuclease in DNA proofreading and repair.
15.	Describe the structure and function of telomeres.
16.	Explain the possible significance of telomerase in germ cells and cancerous cell.

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Chapter 17 AP Objectives

Chapter 17 From Gene to Protein

Objectives

The Connection Between Genes and Proteins
1.	Explain why dwarf peas have shorter stems than tall varieties.
2.	Explain the reasoning that led Archibald Garrod to first suggest that genes dictate phenotypes through enzymes.
3.	Describe Beadle and Tatum’s experiments with Neurospora and explain the contribution they made to our understanding of how genes control metabolism.
4.	Distinguish between the “one geneÐone enzyme” hypothesis and the “one geneÐone polypeptide” hypothesis and explain why the original hypothesis was changed.
5.	Explain how RNA differs from DNA.
6.	Briefly explain how information flows from gene to protein.
7.	Distinguish between transcription and translation.
8.	Compare where transcription and translation occur in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes.
9.	Define codon and explain the relationship between the linear sequence of codons on mRNA and the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.
10.	Explain the early techniques used to identify what amino acids are specified by the triplets UUU, AAA, GGG, and CCC.
11.	Explain why polypeptides begin with methionine when they are synthesized.
12.	Explain what it means to say that the genetic code is redundant and unambiguous.
13.	Explain the significance of the reading frame during translation.
14.	Explain the evolutionary significance of a nearly universal genetic code.

	The Synthesis and Processing of RNA
15.	Explain how RNA polymerase recognizes where transcription should begin. Describe the promoter, the terminator, and the transcription unit.
16.	Explain the general process of transcription, including the three major steps of initiation, elongation, and termination.
17.	Explain how RNA is modified after transcription in eukaryotic cells.
18.	Define and explain the role of ribozyme.
19.	Describe the functional and evolutionary significance of introns.

	The Synthesis of Protein
20.	Describe the structure and functions of tRNA.
21.	Explain the significance of wobble.
22.	Explain how tRNA is joined to the appropriate amino acid.
23.	Describe the structure and functions of ribosomes.
24.	Describe the process of translation (including initiation, elongation, and termination) and explain which enzymes, protein factors, and energy sources are needed for each stage.
25.	Describe the significance of polyribosomes.
26.	Explain what determines the primary structure of a protein and describe how a polypeptide must be modified before it becomes fully functional.
27.	Describe what determines whether a ribosome will be free in the cytosol or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
28.	Describe two properties of RNA that allow it to perform so many different functions.
29.	Compare protein synthesis in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes.
30.	Define point mutations. Distinguish between base-pair substitutions and base-pair insertions. Give examples of each and note the significance of such changes.
31.	Describe several examples of mutagens and explain how they cause mutations.
32.	Describe the historical evolution of the concept of a gene.

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Chapter 3: Biochemistry PowerPoint Worksheet

Chapter 3 Biochemistry of Cells PowerPoint Notes

1. What is the most abundant organic compound on Earth?
2. Approximately how much water makes up the cells of organisms?
3. ___________ is known as the universal solvent.

4. List 4 properties of water that make it so useful to organisms.

5. Besides water, what other substance makes up most of the cell?

6. ____________ chemistry is the study of carbon compounds.

7. Carbon has _______ outer electrons so it can form ___________ bonds by sharing these electrons.

8. Carbon & hydrogen make up compounds called ________________.

9. Sketch a simple hydrocarbon with the formula CH4.

10. Carbon skeletons may be straight _______________, _____________ chains, or ______________ structures.

11. Hydrocarbons in ____________ supply our bodies with energy.

12. The _______ of an organic molecule determines its function.

13. ____________ groups give different properties to the organic compound to which they attach.

14. Write the formula for the following functional groups:

a. Hydroxyl

b. Carbonyl

c. Carboxyl

d. Amino

15. Give examples of organic compounds that contain each of the functional groups from question 14.

16. Large organic molecules are called _______________.

17. Polymers are built from smaller subunits called _____________.

18. Biologists call polymers _____________________.

19. Name 4 examples of polymers found in living things.

20. Monomers linked together are called ____________.

21. The process of linking monomers together is called _______________________.

22. Dehydration synthesis links small molecules or monomers together by removing molecules of _____________.

23. Name the process used to break down large polymers into smaller monomers.

24. Hydrolysis involves ____________ a molecule of water in order to break bonds.

25. Name some foods that contain lots of carbohydrates.

26. _________________ are simple sugars.

27. Name 3 monosaccharides & give their chemical formula.

28. Monosaccharides are called hexose sugars because they contain 6 _______________.

29. __________ is the simple sugar made by plants, ___________ is the sugar found in fruits, while _______________ is known as “milk sugar”. Sugars have an __________ ending.

30. What are isomers?

31. Name 2 isomers.

32. What does aqueous mean?

33. What happens to simple sugars, monosaccharides, when they are put into aqueous solutions inside cells?

34. ___________________ serve as fuel for cells. Saccharide means ________________.

35. What is a double sugar called?

36. How are disaccharides formed? Name the BOND that joins them together.

37. Name 3 disaccharides.

38. Name the simple sugars that make up each of these disaccharides:

a. Sucrose

b. Maltose

c. Lactose

39. Complex carbohydrates are called ________________ & are made of chains of ________________________.

40. Name 3 examples of polysaccharides and tell the shape of each.

41. Plants store carbohydrate energy as ____________.

42. Name some starchy foods.

43. Animals store their carbohydrate energy as __________________.

44. Both starch & glycogen are made of monomers of ____________ or glucose.

45. Describe cellulose fibers & tell where in plants it is found.

46. Cellulose makes up __________ in plants and serves as dietary __________ in animals.

47. How are cows able to digest cellulose?

48. Since sugars dissolve in water, they are said to be _____________ or water-loving. What functional group makes them water soluble?

49. Lipids are hydrophobic. What does this mean?

50. Name 4 examples of lipids and then give 3 functions for lipids in the body.

Examples:

51. If the bonds between carbons in a fatty acid are all single bonds, the fatty acid is ___________________. Sketch a saturated fatty acid.

52. If there is a double bond between carbons in a fatty acid, the fatty acid is ___________________. Sketch an unsaturated fatty acid.

53. _______________ are the monomers that make up lipids or fats.

54. Triglycerides are made of an alcohol called ____________ and 3 ___________ acid chains.

55. ___________ forms the backbone of the fat. Sketch glycerol.

56. Saturated fatty acids are ___________ at room temperature and include __________,

margarine, and _____________.

57. Unsaturated fats in plants exist as ________ or oils at room temperature.

58. (a) What process links the 3 fatty acid chains to the glycerol in lipids?

(b) What lipids are in cell membranes?

(d) Phospholipid heads are _____________ and attract water, while the 2 tails are _________ and repel water.

59. Lipids called _____________ are made of four, fused rings of carbon.

60. Name 3 steroids found in organisms.

61. Proteins are polymers made of monomers called ___________________.

62. How many different amino acids are there?

63. Give 3 jobs for proteins in cells.

64. What four things are bonded to the central carbon of every amino acid?

65. Sketch the structure of an amino acid & label the attached groups.

66. Amino acids are linked together by ____________ synthesis and held together by _____________ bonds.

67. Many proteins act as __________ or biological catalysts.

68. Cells have _____________ of enzymes which may ___________ chemical bonds and ____________ the amount of activation energy needed for the reaction to occur.

69. Enzymes have what shape?

70. Substrates attach to an enzyme at its ___________ site. When a substrate attaches to the active site the active site changes ________________. This is called ______________ fit.

71. Can enzymes be reused?

72. The linear sequence of amino acids (chain) is the ____________ structure of a protein.

73. Protein chains are called __________________.

74. Secondary protein structures occur when proteins ___________ or ___________.

75. When polypeptides join together, the _________ groups interact with each other forming the ___________ structure of a protein forms.

76. Proteins take on a _____________ shape in the watery environment inside a cell. This is known as their _______________________ structure. Protein shape is also known as protein _____________________.

77. Denaturing a protein involves changing its __________ so it no longer works.

78. Name 2 things that denature proteins.

79. (a) What causes sickle cell anemia (disease)?

(b) What is the function of the protein hemoglobin in red blood cells?

(d) Insulin causes excess sugar to be stored in the _____________ as ________________.

(e) Proteins in the cell membrane that help cells recognize similar cells are called __________ proteins.

80. ___________ acids store hereditary information for making all of the body’s ______________.

81. Name the 2 types of nucleic acids.

82. What are the monomers for nucleic acids? Sketch a nucleotide.

83. Name the 4 bases on DNA.

84. What 2 things make up the sides of DNA?

85. DNA is ___________ stranded & coiled to make a shape called the double ____________.

86. RNA has __________ sugar instead of DEOXYRIBOSE sugar on DNA

87. RNA is a _____________ stranded molecule unlike double stranded DNA.

88. On RNA, the base ______________ replaces thymine.

89. _____________ is the cell’s energy molecule.

90. What is the monomer for ATP?

91. What does ATP stand for?

92. How is the nucleotide monomer for ATP DIFFERENT from the nucleotide monomer for nucleic acids?

93. Where is the energy stored in ATP?

94. Which bonds are considered HIGH ENERGY bonds in ATP?

95. When the last phosphate bond is broken, what is released?

96. what is the energy of ATP used for?

97. Besides energy, what two other things are formed when the last phospheta bond of ATP is broken?

98. How can ATP be reformed?